UC-NRLF 


25   Ofll 


GIFT   OF 
President's  Office 


OFFICIAL  REPORT  OF  THE 
SESSION  OF  THE 

INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS 
OF  VITICULTURE 

HELD  IN  RECITAL  HALL  AT  FESTIVAL  HALL 

PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL 

EXPOSITION,  SAN  FRANCISCO 

CAL.,  JULY  12  and  13,  1915 


UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  PERMANENT  INTERNATIONAL 

VITICULTURAL  COMMISSION,  BY  RESOLUTION 

VOTED  JUNE  11,  iai3.  AT  GHENT,  BELGIUM 


4  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

PERMANENT    INTERNATIONAL    VITICULTURAL 
COMMISSION. 

HONORARY  PRESIDENTS: 
MM. 

Le  Ministre  d'Agriculture  d'Autriche; 
Le  Ministre  d'Agriculture  d'Espagne; 
Le  Ministre  d'Agriculture  de  France; 
Le  Ministre  d'Agriculture  de   Hongrie; 
Le  Ministre  d'Agriculture  d'ltalie; 
Le  Ministre  d'Agriculture  de  Portugal; 
Le  Ministre  d'AgricuJture  de  Russie. 

BUREAU: 

President: 
M. 

Meline   (Jules),  Senateur,  ancien  President  du  Conseil,  ancien  Ministre  de 
1'Agriculture,  President  de  la  Commission  Internationale  d'Agriculture; 

Vice-Presidents : 
MM. 

Buhl  (Franz),  President  de  1'Union  allemande  des  Viticulteurs,  viticulteur  a 

Deidesheim  (Baviere  rhenane),  (Allemagne) ; 
Karl    Portele,    Conseiller    aulique,    Inspecteur    de    1'Agriculture,    a    Vienne 

(Autriche) ; 
Garcia  de   los  Salmones,  Directeur  du  Service  Agricole  de  la  province  de 

Pampelune  (Espagne)  ; 
Viala  (Pierre),  Inspecteur  General  de  la  Viticulture,  Professeur  a  1'Institut 

National  agronomique  (France) ; 

Victor  Kosinsky,  Directeur  de  1'Ecole  de  Viticulture  d'Arad  (Hongrie); 
Edoardo   Ottavi,   Depute"    au   Parlement   italien,    Secretaire   general    du   Vie 

Congres  international  d'Agriculture,  a  Rome  (Italic) ; 
Cincinnato    da    Costa,   ancien   Depute"    aux    Cortes,    Professeur    a   1'Institut 

Agronomique  de  Lisbonne  (Portugal) ; 
Basile  TaTroff,  Consultant  au  Ministere   de   1'Agriculture  et  des  Domaines, 

Directeur  du  Westnik  Vinodelia,  a  Odessa  (Russie) ; 
Muller-Thurgau    (Prof.   Dr),   Directeur   de   TEstablissement   federal    d'essais 

pour    1'arboriculture,    la    viticulture    et    1'horticulture,    a    Waedensweil 

(Suisse); 

PERPETUAL   SECRETARY: 

M.  ,       .  .    ..    . •    .  ..- 

Prosper  Gervais,  Mem$re  de  la  Sofcf^te"  Wtionale  d'Agriculture,  Vice-Pr<§sident 
de  la  SociSte  des  Agriculteurs  de  France,  et  de  la  Societe  des  Viticulteurs 
de  France  (Frab?®).*  -  .  . 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


INTRODUCTION. 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALIFORNIA. 

July  12  and  13,  1915. 


The  International  Congress  of  Viticulture  of  1915  was  held  at 
San  Francisco  under  the  authority  of  the  Permanent  International 
Commission,  in  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  that  body  voted  on 
June  11,  1913,  at  Ghent,  Belgium.  At  that  time  no  one  anticipated 
that  by  reason  of  a  world-wide  war  the  European  members  would 
be  unable  to  attend. 

The  international  character  of  the  Congress  was  preserved  as 
much  as  possible  by  the  co-operation  of  the  various  countries  con- 
cerned, whose  governments  accepted  the  invitation  to  furnish  repre- 
sentatives from  among  their  European  commissioners.  The  members 
attending  the  Congress  and  the  papers  presented  were  almost  entirely 
American.  The  absence  of  most  of  the  active  members  of  former 
Congresses,  and  the  lack  of  their  valuable  papers  and  discussion, 
were  serious  deficiencies.  The  Congress,  however,  was  valuable  as  an 
indication  of  the  progress  and  extent  of  viticulture  in  the  United 
States  and  the  report  should  be  of  interest  to  the  viticulturists  of  the 
world  as  a  symposium  of  American  viticulture. 

The  activities  of  the  Congress  consisted  of  meetings  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, at  which  the  papers  were  presented  and  discussed,  and  of 
excursions  to  some  of  the  most  important  viticultural  centers  of 
California. 

The  papers  presented  covered  a  wide  range  of  viticultural  inter- 
ests. They  included  seven  addresses  on  historical,  educational  and 
commercial  aspects  of  viticulture;  five  on  various  cultural  topics; 
seven  special  regional  studies  representing  most  of  the  grape-growing 
regions  of  the  United  States;  fifteen  studies  of  fungous  diseases, 
injurious  insects  and  of  methods  of  control ;  nine  papers  on  the  chem- 
istry, technics  and  products  of  viticulture  and  several  miscellaneous 
papers. 

335831 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


PATRONS. 

The  Governor  of  the  State  of  California. 

University  of  California. 
Permanent  International  Viticultural  Commission. 

American  Pomological  Society. 

California  State  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners. 

California  Grape  Protective  Association. 

American  Wine  Growers'  Association. 

COMMISSION  ON  ORGANIZATION. 

His  Excellency,  the  Governor  of  California. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  President  University  of  California. 

M.  Jules  Meline,  Senator  of  France,  former  Minister  of  Agriculture,  President 
of  the  Permanent  International  Viticultural  Commission. 

M.  Prosper  Gervais,  Perpetual  Secretary  of  the  Permanent  International  Viti- 
cultural Commission,  member  of  the  Superior  Council  of  Agriculture  and 
of  the  National  Agricultural  Society  of  France. 

M.  Henry  Sagnier,  Questeur  of  the  International  Agricultural  Commission 
and  Perpetual  Secretary  of  the  National  Agricultural  Society  of  France. 

Herr  Franz  von  Buhl,  Senator,  President  of  Viticultural  Society  of  Germany. 

Karl  Portele,  Superior  Councillor,  Inspector  of  Agriculture,  Vienna,  Austria. 

Garcia  de  los  Salmones,  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Service,  Province  of 
Pampelune,  Spain. 

Pierre  Viala,  Inspector  General  of  Viticulture,  Professor  of  the  National  Agri- 
cultural Institute  of  France. 

Victor  Kotinsky,  Inspector  of  Agriculture  in  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture, 
Budapest,  Hungary. 

Hon.  Dr.  Edouardo  Ottavi,  member  Italian  Parliament,  President  of  the 
Society  of  Agriculture  of  Italy. 

Cincinnato  Da  Costa,  former  Deputy  in  the  Cortez,  Professor  in  the  Institute 
of  Agronomy,  Lisbon,  Portugal. 

Basil  Tairoff,  Councillor  in  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Domaines,  Direc- 
tor of  the  Journal  Westnik  Vinodelia,  Odessa,  Russia. 

Prof.  Dr.  Muller-Thiirgau,  Director  of  the  Federal  Experiment  Stations  for 
Forestry,  Viticulture  and  Horticulture,  Waedensweil,  Switzerland. 

Dr.  Clemente  Grimaldi,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Science,  Modica,  Sicily. 

Dr.  Salas  Y.  Amat,  Agricultural  Engineer,  Malaga,  Spain. 

Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

Hon.  L.  A.  Goodman,  President  American  Pomological  Society,  Kansas  City, 
Missouri. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  7 

OFFICERS  OF  THE  COMMISSION. 

President — Prof.  William  B.  Alwood,  Charlottesville,  Va. 
First  Vice-President—Walter  E.  Hildreth,  Urbana,  N.  Y. 
Second  Vice-President — Clarence  J.  Wetmore,  Livermore,  Cal. 
Third  Vice-President — Sophus  Federspeil,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Secretary — Lee  J.  Vance,  302  Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Assistant  Secretaries — H.  F.  Stoll,  216  Pine  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
E.  M.  Sheehan,  State  Capitol,  Sacramento,  Cal. 
Treasurer — William  Culman,  410  West  Fourteenth  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ACTIVE  MEMBERS. 
Appointed  by  the  Commission  on  Organization. 

Benjamin  R.  Kittredge,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Clarence  J.  Wetmore,  Livermore,  Cal. 

Walter  E.  Hildreth,  Urbana,  N.  Y. 

Hiram  S.  Dewey,  Egg  Harbor,  N.  J. 

Edward  R.  Emerson,  Washingtonville,  N.  Y. 

Prof.  William  B.  Alwood,  Charlottesville,  Va. 

William  Culman,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Lee  J.  Vance,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

H.  F.  Stoll,  Secretary  California  Grape  Protective  Association,  San  Francisco, 
California. 

Andrea  Sbarbaro,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

S.  Guasti,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

E.  M.  Sheehan,  Secretary  California  State  Board  of  Viticulture,  Sacramento, 
California. 

Prof.  F.  T.  Bioletti,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

Dr.  Oberlin,  Director  of  the  Viticultural  Institute,  Colmar,  Germany. 

Herr  Auguste  Bern,  Inspector  of  Viticulture,  Neustadt,  Germany. 

Baron  de  Schorlemer,  Viticulturist,  near  Treves,  Germany. 

Dr.  L.  Mathieu,  Director  Enological  Station,  Beaune,  Cote  d'Or,  France. 

Dr.  Emile  Manceau,  Director  Enological  Laboratory,  Epernay,  France. 

Prof.  A.  Mareschati,  Director  of  Viticultural  Station,  Casale,  Montferrato,  Italy. 

Claudio  Oliveras  Masso,  Agricultural  Engineer,  Reuss,  Tarragone,  Spain. 

Alfredo  Mesquita,  Diario  de  Naticios,  Lisbon,  Portugal. 

Amadeo  Serafini,  Buenos  Aires,  Argentine  Republic. 

Prof.  E.  R.  Lake,  Secretary  American  Pomological  Society,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Prof.  George  C.  Husmann,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Prof.  U.  P.  Hedrick,  Horticulturist,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Geneva,  N.  Y. 

Prof.  A.  L.  Quaintance,  Entomologist,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Sophus  Federspiel,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

C.  E.  Bundschu,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Walter  S.  Lenk,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

A.  C.  Krudwig,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 

O.  G.  Stark,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 


8  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

CONTRIBUTING  MEMBERSHIP  TO   THIS   CONGRESS. 

CALIFORNIA. 

F.  Albertz,  Cloverdale,  Cal. 

Charles  Ash,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
J.  A.  Barlotti,  1234  Palmetto  Street,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
George  W.  Barry,  453  Second  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
J.  E.  Beach,  Fair  Oaks,  Cal. 
Beringer  Bros.,  Inc.,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

R.  G.  Bettoli,  Italian-Swiss  Colony,  Battery  and  Greenwich  Streets,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

George  P.  Beveridge,  The  California  Wine  Association,  Fresno,  Cal. 
Prof.  Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal. 
William  F.  Bornhorst,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

John  Bosch,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
George  Bourland,  Winters,  Cal. 
J.  B.  Bradford  &  Sons,  Bruceville,  Cal. 
Bismarck  Bruck,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

Carl  B.  Bundschu,  20  California  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Charles  Carpy,  Oakville,  Cal. 
Chauche  &  Bon,  319  Battery  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

E.  S.  Ciprico,  Lachman  &  Jacobi,  112  Main  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
J.  E.  Colton,  Martinez,  Cal. 

Joseph  J.  Concannon,  Livermore,  Cal. 

John  A.  Corotto,  560  N.  Fifth  Street,  San  Jose,  Cal. 

J.  A.  Covick,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

W.  V.  Cruess,  College  of  Agriculture,  U.  C.,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

Edward  L.  da  Roza,  Elk  Grove  Winery,  Elk  Grove,  Cal. 

G.  De  Latour,  Beaulieu  Vineyard,  Rutherford,  Cal. 
P.  De  Veaux,  Mission  San  Jose,  Cal. 

A.  G.  Dondero,  Ciocca-Lombardi  Wine  Co.,  Battery  and  Green  Streets,  San 

Francisco,  Cal. 
Henry  Dufour,  Oakville,  Cal. 

F.  Estrade,  Madrone,  Cal. 

S.    Federspiel,   Italian-Swiss    Colony,    Battery   and    Greenwich    Streets,    San 
Francisco,  Cal. 

E.  I.  Field,  Mt.  Hamilton  Vineyard,  San  Jose,  Cal. 
Prof.  F.  Flossfeder,  University  Farm,  Davis,  Cal. 

M.   J.  Fontana,  Italian-Swiss   Colony,  Battery  and   Greenwich   Streets,   San 

Francisco,  Cal. 

George  W.  Foulks,  Elk  Grove,  Cal. 
French-American  Wine  Co.,  15th  and  Harrison  Streets,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

F.  Frohman,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
J.  Frowenfeld,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

E.  H.  Frye,  Franklin,  Cal. 

F.  Gianinni,  Tulare,  Cal. 
Theodore  Gier,  Oakland,  Cal. 

Ralph  A.  Gould,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

The  Granz  Estate,  Fresno,  Cal. 

Grau  &  Werner,  Los  Amigos  Vineyard,  Irvington,  Cal. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  9 

Secondo  Guasti,  1234  Palmetto  Street,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Secondo  Guasti,  Jr.,  1234  Palmetto  Street,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

H.  R.  Gundlach,  20  California  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

William  Hoelscher  &  Co.,  1873  Mission  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

C.  E.  Humbert,  Cloverdale,  Cal. 

Fred  L.  Husmann,  Viticultural  Superintendent,  Second  and  Seminary  Streets, 

Napa,  Cal. 
J.  J.  Jacobi,  Lachman  &  Jacobi,  112  Main  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

A.  L.  Jacobi,  Lachman  &  Jacobi,  112  Main  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Rudolf  Jordan,  Jr.,  A.  Repsold  Co.,  104  Pine  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
W.  S.  Keyes  &  Co.,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

B.  R.  Kittredge,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
H.  Landsberger,  Sheldon  Building,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Leo  Korbel,  Guerneville,  Cal. 
Louis  Kunde,  Glen  Ellen,  Cal. 

Arthur  Lachman,  453  Second  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Henry  Lachman,  Mission  San  Jose,  Cal. 
Landsberger  &  Sons,  Sheldon  Building,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Herman  Lange,  B.  Arnhold  &  Co.,  116  Townsend  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
G.  E.  Lawrence,  Lodi,  Cal. 

W.  Leichter,  C.  Schilling  &  Co.,  Twentieth  and  Minnesota  Streets,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

Tracy  Learnard,  Gilroy,  Cal. 
E.  Light,  Calistoga,  Cal. 
P.  F.  Lint,  Los  Gatos,  Cal. 
W.  W.  Lyman,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

E.  G.  Lyons  &  Raas  Co.,  535  Folsom  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Stiles  McLaughlin,  Lemoore,  Cal. 

Frank  Malcolm,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

F.  T.  Malesani,  Madera,  Cal. 
Louis  Mangels,  Cordelia,  Cal. 
Margherita  Vineyard,  Fresno,  Cal. 
Paul  Masson,  San  Jose,  Cal. 

A.  Mattel,  Malaga,  Cal. 

Louis  Mel,  Livermore,  Cal. 

F.  J.  Merriam,  Chula  Vista  Winery,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

C.  O.  G.  Miller,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
A.  R.  Morrow,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Leon  Munier,  Italian-Swiss  Colony,  Battery  and  Greenwich  Streets,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

J.  O'Meara,  Oakley,  Cal. 
R.  L.  Nougaret,  Walnut  Creek,  Cal. 
Dr.  H.  Ohrwall,  Hollister,  Cal. 
Len.  D.  Owens,  Aetna  Springs,  Cal. 
William  Palmtag,  Hollister,  Cal. 
Sheridan  Peterson,  Santa  Rosa,  Cal. 
E.  C.  Priber,  79  Scott  Street,  San  Francisco/ Cal. 
Andrew  Rasmussen,  Napa,  Cal. 
John  G.  Ritter,  Palmdale,  Cal. 
E.  H.  Rixford,  105  Montgomery  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


10  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

F.  M.  Roessler,  Fresno,  Cal. 

Rosenblatt  Co.,  300  Second  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

E.  A.  Rossi,  Italian-Swiss  Colony,  Battery  and  Greenwich  Streets,  San  Fran- 

cisco, Cal. 

R.  D.  Rossi,  Italian-Swiss  Colony,  Battery  and  Greenwich  Streets,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

H.  C.  Rowley,  Publisher  "California  Fruit  News,"  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

F.  Salmina  &  Co.,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

Paul  Samuel,  247  Bush  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

A.  Sbarboro,  Italian-Swiss  Colony,  Battery  and  Greenwich  Streets,  San 
Francisco,  Cal. 

C.  Schilling,  C.  Schilling  &  Co.,  20th  and  Minnesota  Streets,  San  Francisco, 
California. 

Ernst  Schraubstadter,  A.  Finke's  Widow,  809  Montgomery  Street,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

E.  M.  Sheehan,  Sacramento  Valley  Winery,  Sacramento,  Cal. 

A.  B.  Shoemake,  Modesto,  Cal. 

A.  H.  Siegfried,  C.  Schilling  &  Co.,  20th  and  Minnesota  Streets,  San  Francisco, 
California. 

M.  H.  Simons,  U.  S.  N.,  Rancho  Manzanita,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

Mrs.  Sara  B.  Smith,  Livermore,  Cal. 

W.  Sommer,  Lachman  &  Jacobi,  112  Main  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

T.  J.  Stevenson,  Elk  Grove,  Cal. 

Alfred  Stern,  Chas.  Stern  &  Son,  I.  N.  Van  Nuys  Building,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

H.  F.  Stoll,  216  Pine  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

M.  F.  Tarpey,  La  Paloma  Vineyard,  Tarpey,  Cal. 

Arthur  B.  Tarpey,  La  Paloma  Vineyard,  Tarpey,  Cal. 

Burton  A.  Towne,  Lodi,  Cal. 

E.  H.  Twight,  Italian  Vineyard  Co.,  Guasti,  Cal. 

W.  P.  Valsangiacomo,  Columbus  Wine  Co.,  150  Columbus  Avenue,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

G.  W.  Van  Sicklen,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
M.  Viera,  Antioch,  Cal. 

N.  V.  Walsh,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

William  Wehner,  Evergreen,  San  Jose,  Cal. 

C.  H.  Wente,  Livermore,  Cal. 

C.  J.  Wetmore,  Cresta  Blanca  Wine  Co.,  166  Eddy  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

L.  S.  Wetmore,  The  California  Wine  Association,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

John  H.  Wheeler,  St.  Helena,  Cal. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Albert  Bernhard,  Meriden,  Conn. 

James  W.  Booth,  G.  F.  Heublein  &  Bro.,  196  Trumbull  Street,  Hartford,  Conn. 
G.  F.  Heublein,  G.  F.  Heublein  &  Bro.,  196  Trumbull  Street,  Hartford,  Conn. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

H.  J.  Bock,  Scientific  Assistant  in  Viticulture,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Charles  Dearing,  Scientific  Assistant  in  Viticulture,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Geo.  C.  Husmann,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  11 

ILLINOIS. 

John  Crerar  Library,  Chicago,  111. 
Jan.  J.  Fucik,  F.  Korbel  &  Bros.,  Inc.,  1621  West  Twelfth  Street,  Chicago,  111. 

INDIANA. 

The  Houppert  Wine  Co.,  801  East  Maryland  Street,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

MARYLAND. 
Mrs.  H.  H.  Klingel,  2925  North  Charles  Street,  Baltimore,  Md. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Bernard  J.  Joyce,  The  Sonoma  Wine  &  Brandy  Co.,  115  Broad  Street,  Boston, 

Mass. 
Edward  J.  Joyce,  Boston,  Mass. 

MISSOURI. 
Jacob  Brenner  Wine  Co.,  115  South  Third  Street,  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

S.  Oberst  &  Son,  Egg  Harbor  City,  N.  J. 
Felix  N.  Renault,  Renault  Importing  &  Exporting  Co.,  Egg  Harbor,  N.  J. 

NEW  YORK. 

Mrs.  Hale  Braybrook,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
L.  G.  Bennett,  Roualet  Wine  Co.,  Hammondsport,  N.  Y. 

M.  Carbone,  Italian-Swiss  Colony,  719-721  Washington  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
William  Culman,  The  California  Wine  Association,  410-412  West  Fourteenth 

Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

J.  Gushing,  Vine  City  Wine  Cellars,  Hammondsport,  N.  Y. 
Mrs.  Margaret  Farrell  Conlon,  115  Maiden  Lane,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
J.  W.  Davis,  Urbana  Wine  Company,  Urbana,  N.  Y. 
Alfred  de  Montebello  &  Co.,  110  Broad  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Elmer  De  Pue,  Cresta  Blanca  Wine  Co.,  41  East  41st  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Mrs.  Elmer  De  Pue,  Cresta  Blanca  Wine  Co.,  41  East  41st  Street,  New  York, 

N.  Y. 

Geo.  E.  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Hiram  S.  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Mrs.  Hiram  S.  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York, 

N.  Y. 

Geo.  F.  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Ralph  C.  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Mrs.  Ralph  C.  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York, 

N.Y. 
S.  Bradford  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York, 

N.Y. 

Wm.  H.  Dewey,  H.  T.  Dewey  &  Sons  Co.,  138  Fulton  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
A.  C.  Douglas,  Brotherhood  Wine  Co.,  Washingtonville,  N.  Y. 
M.  A.  Eiseman,  Eiseman  &  Co.,  Inc.,  68  Cortlandt  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


12  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Mrs.  M.  A.  Eiseman,  68  Cortlandt  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Evelyn  Eiseman,  68  Cortlandt  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Edward  R.  Emerson,  Brotherhood  Wine  Co.,  Washingtonville,  N.  Y. 

Mrs.  Annie  Thompson  Farrell,  115  Maiden  Lane,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

-William  J.  Farrell,  115  Maiden  Lane,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

-Miss  Helen  Thompson  Farrell,  115  Maiden  Lane,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Edward  Frowenfeld,  The  California  Wine  Association,  410-412  West  Four- 
teenth Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

W.  E.  Hildreth,  Urbana  Wine  Co.,  Urbana,  N.  Y. 

J.  S.  Stubbs,  Columbia  Wine  Co.,  Hammondsport,  N.  Y. 

B.  Kahnweiler,  The  California  Wine  Association,  410  West  Fourteenth  Street, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

George  A.  Kessler  &  Co.,  20  Beaver  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Henry  Koch,  Lachman  &  Jacobi,  65  North  Moore  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

D.  H.  Maxfield,  Naples,  N.  Y. 
Hiram  Maxfield,  Naples,  N.  Y. 

Miss  Helen  L.  Maxfield,  Naples,  N.  Y. 
Miss  Jane  S.  Maxfield,  Naples,  N.  Y. 

J.  Oesterlein,  E.  L.  Spellman  &  Co.,  792  Washington  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
James  Olwell  &  Co.,  181  West  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Frederick  E.  Palmer,  Hammondsport  Wine  Company,  Hammondsport,  N.  Y. 
Louis  Profumo,  Cella  Bros.,  528  West  Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Frederick  Renken,  Munn  Champagne  &  Importation  Co.,  35  West  Thirty-ninth 
Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

E.  C.  Romano,  Italian  Vineyard  Co.,  492  Broome  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Guido  Rossati,  226  Layfayette  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

E.  L.  Spellman,  E.  L.  Spellman  &  Co.,  792  Washington  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Charles  Schueler,  California  Winery,  74  Cortland  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Munson  G.  Shaw,  Alex  D.  Shaw  &  Co.,  76  Broad  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

L.  W.  Southwick,  Sonoma  Wine  and  Brandy  Co.,  18  Hamilton  Avenue,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 

L.  G.  Stelzle,  861  Sixth  Avenue,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Charles  Stern  &  Sons,  153  Hudson  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Fred  U.  Swarts,  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y. 

Walter  Taylor,  The  Taylor  Wine  Co.,  Hammondsport,  N.  Y. 

Lee  J.  Vance,  American  Wine  Press,  302  Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mrs.  M.  P.  Van  Dyke,  Hotel  Seymour,  44  West  45th  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Michael  Volz,  Brotherhood  Wine  Co.,  Washingtonville,  N.  Y. 

Carl  von  Bergen,  The  California  Wine  Association,  410  West  Fourteenth 
Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

W.  L.  White,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Jacob  Widmer,  Widmer  Wine  Cellars,  Naples,  N.  Y. 

Alfons  Wile,  Julius  Wile  Sons  &  Co.,  Ninth  Avenue  and  Fifteenth  Street, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

OHIO. 

John  G.  Dorn,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 
The  Lenk  Wine  Co.,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

Charles  F.  Miller,  The  A.  Schmidt,  Jr.  &  Bros.  Wine  Co.,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 
W.  H.  Reinhart,  Sweet  Valley  Wine  Co.,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  13 

J.  J.  Schuster,  The  Schuster  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

George  M.  Zimmerman,  Duroy  &  Haines  Co.,  1422  Columbus  Avenue,  San- 
dusky,  Ohio. 

RHODE   ISLAND. 

John  H.  Caton,  Jr.,  70  Arnold  Avenue,  Edgewood,  R.  I. 
Mrs.  John  H.  Caton,  Jr.,  70  Arnold  Avenue,  Edgewood,  R.  I. 

TEXAS. 
Will  B.  Munson,  Munson  Nurseries,  Denison,  Texas. 

VIRGINIA. 

William  B.  Alwood,  Charlottesville,  Va. 
Adolph  Russow,  Charlottesville,  Va. 


REPRESENTATIVES  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 
PARTICIPATING. 

Mr.  Ernesto  Nathan,  Commissioner  General  from  Italy  to  the  Panama-Pacific 
International  Exposition. 

Mr.  Otto  Wadsted,  Resident  Commissioner  of  the  Danish  Government. 

Mr.  William  Hutchinson,  Commissioner  General  of  the  Canadian  Government. 

Mr.  Henri  Hains  of  the  Canadian  Commission  to  the  Panama-Pacific  Inter- 
national Exposition. 

Mr.  Manuel  Roldan,  Commissioner  General  for  Portugal. 

Mr.  A.  D.  Duffner,  Assistant  Commissioner  for  Portugal. 

Mr.  L.  Clifton,  Commissioner  for  New  Zealand. 

Mr.  James  A.  Robertson,  Commissioner  for  Queensland. 

Mr.  Jiro  Harada,  Member  of  Commission  for  Japan. 

Mr.  H.  Yamaraki,  Member  of  the  Commission  for  Japan. 

Mr.  Eduardo  Perotti,  Commissioner  General  for  Uruguay. 

Mr.  C.  Vassadarkis,  Commissioner  General,  Greece. 


14  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

REPORT  OF  THE  PROCEEDINGS 

OF  THE 

INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

HELD  IN  RECITAL  HALL,  FESTIVAL  HALL, 

PANAMA-PACIFIC    INTERNATIONAL    EXPOSITION, 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALIFORNIA, 

JULY  12  AND  13,  1915. 


The  Congress  was  called  to  order  at  9:30  A.  M.  by  President  William  B. 
Alwood  of  Charlottesville,  Virginia. 

President  Alwood  called  upon  Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan  of  Sacramento,  Cal.,  to 
introduce  the  representative  of  the  Governor  of  the  State  of  California,  Mr. 
Chester  H.  Rowell  of  Fresno,  California. 

Mr.  Rowell.  "I  am  very  sorry  indeed  that  Governor  Johnson  cannot  be 
present  in  person  to  welcome,  you  this  morning,  but  he  requested  me  to  take 
his  place  on  account  of  his  unavoidable  absence.  It  is  necessary  for  him  to 
be  absent  on  most  occasions  of  this  kind  at  the  Exposition. 

"It  is  a  pleasure  for  me  to  welcome  you  here,  and  I  wish  I  had  had  time 
to  prepare  a  speech  or  to  dig  up  an  old  one— one  that  I  delivered  some  years 
ago  on  the  subject  of  sweet  wine — a  speech  in  praise  of  wine.  Fortunately 
for  you,  perhaps,  but  unfortunately  for  me,  I  have  not  had  the  time  to  dig 
into  this  old  matter  or  to  prepare  a  new  address. 

"The  viticultural  industry,  not  only  the  wine  part  of  it,  but  with  all  of  its 
branches,  has  been  a  very  proud  possession  of  California  from  the  beginning 
of  its  history.  The  Mission  Fathers,  who  brought  Western  civilization  here, 
brought  also  the  vine,  and  there  is  the  closest  association  between  wine  and 
occidental  civilization.  We  have  had  for  years  a  viticultural  department  in 
our  State  University,  as  well  as  a  State  Viticultural  Commission  and  many 
experimental  stations  and  vineyards  are  located  in  California. 

"Every  grape-growing  country  is  pleasant  and  beautiful.  The  grape  does 
not  grow  in  the  jungles  of  the  tropics  or  in  the  frozen  North.  The  grape 
was  the  basis  of  the  original  international  industry,  and  as  long  as  there  has 
been  any  commerce  in  the  world  two  things  have  been  carried — wine  and 
raisins — and  frequently  very  little  more.  In  the  blackest  pages  of  European 
history  all  the  commerce  that  was  left  was  commerce  in  silks,  pearls,  wine 
and  raisins. 

"As  the  representative  of  Governor  Johnson,  I  welcome  you  to  California 
and  to  the  Exposition.  May  your  sessions  be  pleasant  and  profitable  and 
your  stay  with  us  enjoyable." 

In  his  response  to  Mr.  Rowell's  address  of  welcome,  President  Alwood 
said: 

"I  want  to  say  on  the  part  of  the  Eastern  people,  that  our  hearts  are  so 
full  of  gratitude  and  happiness  over  all  that  we  have  already  experienced  in 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  15 

California  that  we  cannot  properly  express  our  appreciation  of  this  welcome. 
I  only  wish  that  our  brethren  might  have  been  here  from  that  other  Conti- 
nent across  the  Atlantic  and  have  seen  what  we  people  of  the  East  have  seen 
— the  wondrous  development  of  this  Western  land.  I  have  never  seen  any- 
thing in  all  my  travels  that  at  all  compares  with  the  wonderful  development 
in  this  State  in  one  generation. 

"I  cannot  reply  to  this  address  of  welcome  without  saying  a  few  words 
for  our  absent  brethren.  For  four  years  I  have  been  laboring  over  the  pre- 
liminaries of  this  Congress.  Many  of  the  best  men  of  Europe  interested  in 
viticulture  were  anxious  to  come  to  California,  the  land  of  wonder. 

"M.  Prosper  Gervais,  of  the  National  Agricultural  Society  of  France,  in 
a  letter  a  few  days  ago  stated  to  me:  'My  son,  my  only  son,  is  dead  on  the 
plains  of  Flanders.  I  cannot  come.'  Baron  von  Buhl,  President  of  the  German 
Wine  Association,  hoped  to  take  part  in  the  Congress.  He  wrote  a  long 
letter  of  regret.  'We  cannot  leave  the  Fatherland  now;  it  is  impossible,'  he 
says.  Dr.  Ludwig  Basserman- Jordan  of  Neustadt,  Rhein  Pflaz,  Germany,  is 
dead.  Dr.  Clemente  Grimaldi  of  Sicily  is  dead.  Mr.  M.  Battanchon,  Inspector 
General  of  Agriculture  of  France,  is  dead,  and  others  whom  I  have  not  time 
to  mention. 

"Thus  many  of  our  former  colleagues  have  fallen,  and  on  the  part  of  this 
Congress  I  wish  to  express  our  sincere  sympathy." 

President  Alwood  named  the  members  of  the  following  committees: 

COMMITTEE  ON  ENTERTAINMENT. 
Mr.  C.  J.  Wetmore,  Chairman.  Mr.  V.  Walsh. 

Mr.  S.  Federspiel.  Mr.  F.  Frohman. 

Mr.  H.  F.  Stoll.  Mr.  R.  C.  Dewey. 

COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION. 

Mr.  William  B.  Alwood.  Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan. 

Mr.  U.  P.  Hedrick.  Mr.  H.  F.  Stoll. 

Mr.  F.  T.  Bioletti. 

COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICITY. 
Mr.  H.  F.  Stoll.  Mr.  L.  J.  Vance. 

COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS. 

Mr.  C.  Bundschu,  Chairman.  Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan. 

Mr.  S.  Federspeil.  Mr.  L.  W.  Southwick. 

Mr.  Lee  J.  Vance. 

COMMISSION  ON  ORGANIZATION. 

Mr.  Dewey  moved  that  the  commission  now  sitting  be  elected  as  officers 
of  the  permanent  organization.  Unanimously  carried. 

COMMITTEE   ON  ORDER  OF  BUSINESS. 
Mr.  Hiram  Dewey,  Chairman.  Mr.  C.  J.  Wetmore. 

Mr.  D.  H.  Maxfield.  Mr.  H,  Gundlach. 

Mr.  F.  T.  Bioletti. 

The  presentation,  reading  and  discussion  of  papers  submitted  to  the 
Congress  followed. 


16  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

I.    HISTORICAL,   EDUCATIONAL,    COMMERCIAL. 

The  Work  of  the  California  Viticultural  Commission. 

E.  M.  Sheehan,  Secretary  California  Viticultural  Commission, 

Sacramento,  California. 
Probable    Effect    of   the    Federal    Tax    on    Brandy    upon    the    Horticultural 

Interests  of  California. 

R.  D.  Stephens,  1210  N  Street,  Sacramento,  California. 
A  Campaign  of  Wine  Education. 

H.  F.  Stoll,  216  Pine  Street,  San  Francisco,  California. 
Early  California  Wine  Industry. 

Henry  Lachman,  Mission  San  Jose,  California. 
Love  of  the  Vine. 

Lee  J.  Vance,  New  York,  New  York. 
Grape  Breeding. 

R.  D.  Anthony,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  New  York. 
Introduction  of  Viticulture  into  the  Schools. 

A.  W.  Miller,  Principal  Benicia  High  School,  Benicia,  California. 


II.     CULTURAL. 

Resistant  Vines. 

George  C.  Husmann,  Pomologist,  U.  S.  D.  A.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Pruning  and  Training  American  Grapes. 

F.  E.  Gladwin,  Vineyard  Laboratory,  Fredonia,  New  York. 
Commercial  Fertilizers  for  American  Grapes. 

F.  E.  Gladwin,  Vineyard  Laboratory,  Fredonia,  New  York. 
Some  Tests  of  Resistant  Stocks  in  California. 

F.  Flossfeder,  University  Farm,  Davis,  California. 
Vitis  Vinifera  in  Eastern  America. 

U.  P.  Hedrick,  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  New  York. 


III.    REGIONAL   STUDIES. 

Viticultural   Regions  of  the  Pacific  Slope. 

F.  T.  Bioletti,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California. 
Grape  Growing  in  the  Idaho-Washington  District. 

E.  H.  Twight,  Guasti,  California. 
Grape  Growing  in  Oregon. 

C.  J.  Lewis,  Corvallis,  Oregon. 
Grape  Growing  in  New  Mexico. 

Fabian  Garcia,  State  College,  New  Mexico. 
Grape  Growing  in  Utah. 

A.  B.  Ballantyne,  Provo,  Utah. 
Grape  Growing  in  the  Imperial  Valley. 

W.  E.  Packard,  El  Centro,  California. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  17 

IV.     DISEASES  AND  INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 

Grape  Onthracnose  in  America. 

C.  L.  Shear,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Powdery  Mildew  of  Grapes  and  Its  Control  in  the  United  States. 

Donald  Reddick,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  New  York,  and 

F.  E.  Gladwin,  Fredonia,  New  York. 

Studies  in  "Plasmopara  viticola"  (Downey  Mildew  of  Grapes). 

C.  T.  Gregory,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  New  York. 
Action  of  Fungicides  on  Plants. 

O.  R.  Butler,  New  Hampshire  College,  Durham,  New  Hampshire. 
Sulfur  Fungicides. 

G.  W.  Gray,  Insecticide  Laboratory,  University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  California. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Vine  in  California. 

H.  J.  Quayle,  Citrus  Experiment  Station,  Riverside,  California. 
Phylloxera  in  California. 

R.  L.  Nougaret,  Walnut  Creek,  California. 
Some  Injurious  Grape  Insects 

F.  Z.  Hartzell,  Vineyard  Laboratory,  Fredonia,  New  York. 

(a)  The  Grape   Root  Worm. 

(b)  The  Grape  Leaf  Hopper. 

(c)  The  Grape  Flea  Beetle. 

(d)  The  Rose  Chafer. 
The  Grape  Berry  Moth. 

W.  H.  Goodwin,  Assistant  Entomologist,  Wooster,  Ohio. 
Two  Destructive  Grape  Insects  of  the  Appalachian  Region. 

Fred  E.  Brooks,  Entomological  Assistant,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

V.     CHEMICAL  AND  PRODUCTS  PAPERS. 

The  Engineer's  Part  in  the  Advancement  of  the  Viticultural  Industry. 
E.  T.  Meakin,  409  Sixth  Street,  San  Francisco,  California. 

Results  of  the  Application  of  Pure  Yeast  and  SO0  in  California  Wineries  in 
1913-1914. 

W.  V.  Cruess,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California. 

A   Rapid   Method  of  Volatile  Acid   Determination. 

Cruess  and  Bettoli,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California. 

Influence    of    Composition    on     Effervescence    of    Champagne;     Preliminary 
Investigations. 

R.  W.  Bettoli  and  E.  J.  La  Belle,  Laboratory  Italian-Swiss  Colony, 
San  Francisco. 


18  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Chemical  Composition  of  Native  American  Grapes. 

W.  B.  Alwood,  Charlottesville,  Virginia. 
On  the  Normal  Composition  of  Eastern  Wines. 

W.  B.  Alwood,  Charlottesville,  Virginia. 
Important  Factors  Governing  the  Successful  Transportation  of  Table  Grapes. 

A.  V.  Stubenrauch,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California. 
The  Intelligent  Blending  of  Wines. 

Hiram  S.  Dewey,  President  American  Wine  Growers'  Association. 
A  New  Utilization  of  a  By-Product  of  the  Grape. 

Guido  Rossati,  Enotecinco  Governative  Italiano,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Relation  of  the  Stage  of  Maturity  of  the  Grapes  to  the  Quality  and  Quantity 
of  the  Raisins. 

F.  T.  Bioletti,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  19 

THE  WORK  OF  THE  STATE  VITICULTURAL  COMMISSION. 

By  E.  M.  SHEEHAN, 

Secretary  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners, 
Sacramento,  California. 


There  are  150,000,000  grape  vines  growing  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  hill- 
sides of  this  great  State  of  California  and  there  are  150,000,000  of  dollars 
invested  in  the  viticultural  industry  within  her  borders.  Seventy-five  thou- 
sand people  depend  for  livelihood  on  the  product  of  our  California  vineyards, 
and  ninety  per  cent  of  that  product  brings  outside  revenue  into  this  State. 
The  annual  gross  income  is  found  to  be  30,000,000  of  dollars  and  of  this, 
27,000,000  of  dollars  come  into  the  State  from  food  product  markets  all  over 
the  world. 

It  is  little  wonder,  therefore,  that  California  has  seen  fit  to  maintain  a 
State  Viticultural  Commission  and  a  department  of  viticulture  in  her  State 
University  and  State  Farm,  and  that  theory  has  gone  hand  in  hand  with 
practice  in  the  development  and  culture  of  the  vine  to  an  extent  that  places 
this  Commonwealth  in  the  forefront  of  all  the  sections  of  the  North  American 
continent  in  matters  viticultural. 

It  is  little  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  Federal  Government  has  concerned 
itself  with  the  establishment  of  many  experimental  nurseries  and  vineyards 
in  this  State  for  the  propagation  of  new  and  choice  varieties  of  grape  vines 
and  for  keeping  abreast  of  the  countries  of  the  Old  World  where  viticulture 
is  one  of  the  chief  vocations  of  the  vast  population. 

I  recall  the  general  viticultural  condition  prevailing  in  California  at  the 
present  time,  as  above  briefly  outlined,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  forcefully 
to  the  minds  of  every  member  of  this  International  Congress  of  Viticulture 
and  particularly  those  who  reside  in  the  United  States  of  America,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  perpetuity  and  future  of  the  vineyard  business  in  this  State  and 
in  every  State  in  this  Union. 

I  shall  speak  of  California  alone  and  shall  ask  you  to  endeavor  to  grasp 
and  appreciate  the  position  of  this  State  in  the  vastness  of  her  viticultural 
interests  and  in  her  desire  to  be  accorded  just  consideration  at  the  hands  of 
our  Federal  Government. 

Until  recently,  and  for  many,  many  years,  we  have  seen  nothing  but  the 
fostering  spirit  from  Federal  sources;  but  suddenly  California  is  confronted 
with  regulation  and  most  unusual  burdensome  taxation  of  her  wine-making 
institutions  that  fairly  threaten  to  destroy  at  least  seventy-five  per  cent  of 
her  viticultural  activity.  The  same  new  scheme  of  Federal  taxation  affects, 
it  is  true,  some  other  states  of  our  Union  that  grow  grapes;  but  in  those 
states  the  industry  represents  investments  comparably  small  with  that  of 
ours.  Here  we  lead  and  excell  in  vineyard  products;  there  the  production  is 
merely  an  incident  in  a  maze  of  agricultural  pursuits.  It  means  much  to 
many  thousands  of  our  people;  in  other  sections  it  means  much  to  a  com- 
paratively few;  and,  therefore,  I  plead  that  because  a  Federal  taxation  hard- 
ship does  not  affect  most  sections  of  our  Country,  those  sections  should  not 
remain  passive  and  permit  of  destruction  of  vast  interests  of  their  neighbors. 


20  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

Though  thinking  of  our  wine-grape  vineyards  now  and  of  our  wine- 
making  industry,  I  shall  endeavor  to  show  you  later  how  confiscatory  Federal 
taxation  on  wine  will  affect  our  raisin  and  table-grape  growers  unless  this 
new  tax  law  is  repealed  at  Washington,  and  repealed  promptly  with  the 
assistance  of  every  fair-minded  member  of  our  National  Congress. 

Permit  me  to  give  a  brief  recital  of  what  has  happened  to  the  wine-grape 
interests  of  California. 

Nine  years  ago  and  for  years  prior,  the  sweet  wines  were  made  without 
Federal  tax.  As  the  industry  grew  and  the  expense  of  Government  super- 
vision increased,  a  tax  of  three  cents  per  proof  gallon  on  brandy  used  in 
fortification  of  the  sweet  wines  was  levied  and  it  more  than  offset  the  expense 
of  the  Federal  employes  in  the  gauging  service.  This  tax  or  the  necessity  for 
it  has  not  been  questioned  these  nine  years.  A  maker  of  sweet  wines  in 
California  to  the  extent  of  200,000  gallons  has  paid,  in  addition  to  all  other 
expense,  $1,500  to  the  United  States  Government  as  his  part  of  the  three-cent 
tax  on  brandy  which  he  made  and  added  to  his  fermented  wine  to  preserve  a 
certain  degree  of  sweetness  or  sugar.  Suddenly  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment needs  money  to  meet  deficiencies  in  customs  and  decides  to  tax  sweet- 
wine  makers  55  cents  per  proof  gallon  on  fortifying  brandy  instead  of  three 
cents  per  gallon,  and  demands  that  the  manufacturer  who  makes  200,000 
gallons  of  wine  shall  pay  a  fortifying  tax  of  $27,000  instead  of  $1,500.  More- 
over, we  are  now  informed  that  after  the  coming  vintage  season  the  fortify- 
ing tax  will  automatically  become  $1.10  per  proof  gallon  (the  same  as  has 
always  applied  to  commercial  brandy  when  taken  from  bonded  warehouses), 
and  consequently  the  Government  tax  on  the  winemaker  who  produces 
200,000  gallons  of  sweet-wine  will  after  January  1,  1916,  be  $54,000  instead  of 
the  original  tax  of  $1,500,  or  about  35  times  what  he  has  been  paying. 

This  means  practically  prohibition  of  the  sweet-wine  industry,  or  the 
imposition  of  a  tax  from  the  Federal  Government  of  over  four  and  a  half 
millions  of  dollars  annually  on  California's  normal  output  of  sweet  wines — a 
tax  prohibitive  in  the  extreme  and  one  under  which  the  winemakers  individ- 
ually or  collectively  could  not  exist. 

The  layman  asks,  "What  has  this  to  do  with  dry  wines?  How  are  they 
affected?  What  have  the  table  and  raisin-grape  growers  to  fear?  It  does 
not  concern  them,  does  it?" 

And  the  answer  is,  "They  are  affected  tremendously." 

Just  consider  first  of  all  the  plight  of  the  maker  of  sweet  wines.  On  top 
of  the  cost  of  his  grapes,  his  labor,  his  investment  in  plant,  tools  and  machin- 
ery, and  his  administration,  taxes  and  insurance,  the  wine  he  produces  must 
yield  the  Government  from  25  to  30  cents  per  gallon — a  figure  as  much  as  a 
wholesaler  would  pay  a  manufacturer  for  sweet  wine  a  little  more  than  a 
year  ago.  Indeed,  sweet  wine  sold  in  California  for  two  years  at  prices 
ranging  from  12  to  20  cents  per  gallon. 

Then  what  is  there  for  the  sweet-wine  maker  to  do?  He  cannot  afford  to 
make  more  than  10  per  cent  of  his  normal  output  and  he  promptly  uses  his 
plant  for  the  production  of  dry  wines  such  as  Claret,  Hock,  Zinfandel  and 
other  types  of  dry  wine.  He  converts  17,000,000  gallons  of  sweet-wine  pro- 
duction into  30,000,000  gallons  of  dry  wines,  which,  added  to  California's 
normal  dry-wine  production  of  22,000,000  gallons,  makes  a  total  seasonal  out- 
put of  52,000,000  gallons  of  dry  wine. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  21 

What  is  the  result?  The  market  is  glutted  with  dry  wines.  The  great 
bulk  meets  a  common  price  level  in  the  selling  markets,  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand  comes  into  play,  and  selling  prices  of  dry  wines  are  ruinous  to 
the  producers.  There  is  loss  on  every  hand — the  dry-wine  producer  is 
engulfed  along  with  the  sweet-wine  maker. 

And  now  to  consideration  of  the  table-grape  and  raisin-grape  vineyardists. 
Here  in  California  normally,  40  per  cent  of  their  tonnage  is  not  fit  for  table- 
grape  and  raisin  markets.  These  are  the  culls  and  second-crop  grapes  and 
they  have  always  brought  money  because  the  wineries  could  use  them. 

What  winery  will  want  these  grapes  now?  Who  will  pay  the  cost  of  even 
picking  them?  What  winery  can  afford  to  make  them  into  brandy  for  fortify- 
ing purposes  when  it  will  cost  that  winery  more  than  $40.00  per  ton  for  those 
grapes  in  tax  money  alone,  not  considering  the  cost  of  the  grapes?  Why 
should  wineries  buy  grapes  when  dry  wines  are  a  drug  on  the  market?  The 
answer  is  simple.  This  40  per  cent  of  the  table  and  raisin  grape  crop  will 
yield  nothing  to  the  owners  of  the  vineyards.  It  will  be  a  total  loss.  Markets 
for  unfermented  grape  juice  and  grape  syrup  offer  practically  no  relief.  They 
are  not  big  enough  and  the  possibilities  of  enlarging  them  are  very  remote. 

California's  State  Viticultural  Commission  has  tried  to  avert  this  crush- 
ing blow  to  her  vineyard  interests.  The  Commission  intends  even  yet  to  use 
every  powerful,  plausible  and  honest  effort  to  make  Congress  see  what  an 
injury  it  has  done  to  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  property  in  California  and 
many  thousands  of  her  people.  It  is  inconceivable  that  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment should  decide  within  one  year's  time  to  levy  a  tax  on  California  wines 
amounting  to  36  times  what  it  was  before. 

To  correct  an  injustice  of  this  nature  is  a  task  in  which  the  California 
Viticultural  Commission  must  have  the  enthusiastic  support  of  all  who  are 
interested  in  vineyard  work  not  alone  in  our  own  State  but  in  New  York, 
Ohio,  Missouri,  Virginia  and  every  other  State  in  the  Union  where  the  grape- 
vine thrives.  We  should  be  successful  if  we  have  hearty  co-operation,  and 
the  work  to  be  undertaken  is  in  the  opinion  of  our  Commissioners  the  most 
important  that  has  come  to  the  notice  of  the  Board.  Let  us  not  think  of 
failure  in  our  effort.  Fair-thinking  men  in  Congress  who  have  no  pecuniary 
interest  in  viticulture  or  in  agricultural  pursuits  will  surely  see  the  error  in 
such  an  act  of  the  Government  and  will  not  be  ashamed  to  right  a  great 
wrong  that  has  been  done  to  viticulture  and  particularly  to  those  vast  inter- 
ests in  California. 

There  is  endless  work  for  a  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners  in  this 
State,  and  the  present  Commission  is  going  about  the  task  before  it  in  a 
systematic  manner.  With  insufficient  financial  means  at  its  command,  it  is 
gradually  completing  a  roster  of  the  vineyardists  of  the  entire  State.  This 
will  be  an  office  adjunct  of  invaluable  importance  and  it  will  be  renewed 
constantly  to  keep  pace  with  changes  in  ownership  of  these  vineyard  prop- 
erties. There  will  be  available  in  our  office  the  name  and  postoffice  address 
of  every  man  who  grows  grapes.  In  addition,  the  extent  of  his  vineyard  will 
be  known  as  well  as  the  varieties  of  grapes  he  grows.  I  need  not  explain  to 
you  of  how  much  importance  and  value  this  data  will  be  to  *he  office  of  the 
Board  as  well  as  to  each  of  the  individual  growers.  We  shall  then  be  able  to 
reach  every  vineyard  with  advice  as  often  as  we  wish  and  need  not  depend 
on  general  publicity  mediums. 


22  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

This  Board  has  worked  hand  in  hand  with  the  table-grape  producers  of 
California  and  has  accomplished  by  appeal  to  reason  and  a  citation  of  bene- 
fits to  be  derived,  a  sugar  standardization  for  table-grape  shipments.  We 
also  obtained  the  complete  co-operation  of  all  of  the  marketers  of  our  table 
grapes  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  a  highly  meritorious  pack  of 
table  grapes  was  noted  during  the  last  vintage.  Unfortunately  the  crop  was 
abnormally  large,  and  meeting  as  it  did,  an  Eastern  crop  of  similar  propor- 
tions, the  results  of  sales  were  disappointing  and  the  season  as  a  whole  was 
discouraging  to  the  table-grape  growers. 

The  situation  among  the  raisin-grape  producers  is  satisfactory.  Co-opera- 
tion in  marketing  through  central  exchanges  has  brought  order  and  profit 
out  of  chaos  and  loss.  The  whole  production  is  not  now  rushed  to  market 
at  one  time  or  within  a  short  period.  Intelligent  distribution  and  exploitation 
of  the  markets  is  the  order  of  the  day,  and  raisin  affairs  are  so  well  in  hand 
that  the  producer  receives  needed  money  throughout  the  year  whether  his 
crop  is  sold  or  unsold.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  control  the  disposition  to 
over-produce  in  this  branch  of  viticulture,  and  your  Board  is  so  advising 
those  who  contemplate  going  into  raisin  producing. 

The  Viticultural  Commission  is  busily  engaged  in  studying  plans  of  relief 
for  the  table-grape  growers.  With  only  50,000  acres  of  table  varieties,  Cali- 
fornia either  produces  too  many  grapes  for  her  legitimate  markets,  or  the 
marketing  system  is  faulty.  We  are  greatly  interested  in  the  easement  which 
may  be  afforded  by  packing  large  quantities  of  our  table  grapes  in  a  sawdust 
preservative  in  drums  or  kegs.  These  grapes  so  packed  will  keep  for  winter 
marketing  and  we  are  endeavoring  to  place  our  product  in  competition  with 
the  Almeria  grapes  of  Spain.  The  departure  being  somewhat  new  to  us,  has 
not  yet  been  mastered  successfully,  but  with  perseverance  we  shall  surely 
win  in  the  end. 

I  might  enumerate  an  endless  number  of  interesting  subjects  which  are 
keeping  our  Viticultural  Department  busy  these  days,  but  time  will  not  per- 
mit of  it  at  this  Congress,  and  I  shall  conclude  by  thanking  you  for  the  privil- 
ege of  mentioning  our  work  in  a  general  way,  and  by  inviting  all  of  you  who 
may  be  interested  to  consult  us  as  often  as  you  please  for  general  or  specific 
information  you  may  desire  regarding  California's  vineyards.  We  have  330,000 
acres  of  vines  in  our  State.  170,000  of  these  acres  are  in  wine-grape  vines; 
110,000  acres  in  raisin  grapes;  and  50,000  in  table  grapes.  We  are  qualified 
to  answer  your  questions  correctly  and  will  be  pleased  to  do  so. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  23 

PROBABLE  EFFECT  OF  THE  FEDERAL  TAX  ON  BRANDY 

UPON  THE  HORTICULTURAL  INTERESTS 

OF  CALIFORNIA. 

By  R.  D.  STEPHENS, 
1210  N  Street,  Sacramento,  California. 


Read  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan. 

In  replying  to  your  request  for  an  expression  of  opinion  as  to  what 
effect  the  Federal  Tax  on  brandy  used  in  fortifying  sweet  wines  will  have 
upon  the  horticultural  interests  of  California  will  say,  that  I  do  not  know 
how  I  can  better  illustrate  how  it  will  affect  the  interests  of  the  table  or 
shipping  grape  growers  than  to  give  my  personal  experience  which  practi- 
cally has  been  the  experience  of  all  other  table  grape  growers  in  the  State. 

I  had  a  very  heavy  crop  in  common  with  all  other  growers  and  as  the 
demand  was  not  equal  to  the  supply,  I  sold  to  the  winery  over  220  tons  which 
amounted  to  about  45  per  cent  of  my  entire  crop. 

While  the  price  I  received  for  these  220  tons  was  not  sufficient  to  cover 
all  cost  of  production,  picking  and  delivery,  yet  the  result  was  profitable  to 
me,  for  the  reason  that  I  received  a  profit  over  the  cost  of  picking  and 
delivery — in  other  words  salvage;  and,  by  disposing  of  over  220  tons  to  the 
winery,  which  were  manufactured  into  brandy  and  used  to  fortify  sweet 
wines,  I  was  enabled  to  put  up  a  superior  pack  for  Eastern  shipment.  Had  I 
not  had  an  opportunity  to  dispose  of  this  45  or  50  per  cent  of  my  crop,  at  a 
price,  which,  while  it  did  not  cover  the  total  expenses  for  the  year,  yet 
brought  a  profit  over  the  cost  of  picking  and  delivery,  it  would  have  been  a 
total  loss,  which  would  have  materially  reduced  my  income. 

Growers  and   Manufacturers. 

Growers  can  no  more  afford  to  sacrifice  45  per  cent  or  50  per  cent  or 
60  per  cent  of  their  products  than  can  manufacturers  afford  to  sacrifice  an 
equal  proportion  of  their  products. 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  products  of  the  manufacturer  and 
those  of  the  growers,  for  the  reason  that  one  is  perishable,  while  the  other  is 
not.  If  the  manufacturers  have  an  excess  supply,  they  can  hold  it  until  there 
is  a  demand  for  it  at  a  price  which  will  bring  them  a  good  profit,  for  they 
have  the  power  to  fix  the  price  at  which  they  will  sell  to  the  growers,  but  the 
growers  have  to  sell  at  a  price  fixed  by  the  buyers. 

The  Tax  and   Its   Effect. 

If  the  tax  is  permitted  to  remain  on  California  manufactured  brandy 
which  is  used  for  fortifying  sweet  wines,  it  will  mean  the  financial  ruin  of 
many  who  have  built  up  this  industry  through  the  teachings  of  experts  sent 
to  California  by  the  Federal  Government,  which  now,  through  a  system  of 
taxation  if  it  is  permitted  to  remain,  will  destroy  this  industry;  an  incon- 
siderate action  on  the  part  of  the  Federal  Government. 


24  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  people  of  California  have  the  right  to  ask 
and  demand  that  the  power  and  authority  that  has  been  so  instrumental  and 
potent  in  developing  an  interest  of  so  great  a  magnitude,  as  is  the  horticul- 
tural interest  of  California,  of  which  the  viticultural  interest  is  an  important 
factor  should  give  to  it  the  protection  that  justice  and  equity  demand. 

Magnitude  of  the  Interest. 

There  are  about  1,100,000  acres  planted  to  fruit  in  California  represent- 
ing at  a  minimum  estimate  a  financial  investment  of  from  $650,000,000  to 
$700,000,000.  The  percentage  of  this  acreage  that  is  planted  to  fresh  shipping 
varieties  of  fruit,  when  all  is  in  full  bearing  will  produce  from  240,000  to 
250,000  carloads  per  annum  and  if  the  tax  on  our  brandy  is  permitted  to 
remain,  it  will  either  force  the  shipment  of  40,000  to  50,000  more  cars,  or  the 
uprooting  of  vineyards  in  which  men  and  women  have  the  earnings  of  gene- 
rations invested. 

Transportation   Rate  Problem. 

As  the  cost  for  transportation  on  fresh  fruit  shipments  is  such  as  to 
absorb  in  many  instances  from  55  per  cent  to  over  60  per  cent  of  the  gross 
sales  of  cars,  which  means  heavy  loss,  it  will  make  additional  shipments 
prohibitive,  unless  they  be  made  at  an  increased  loss.  I  repeat  that  the 
Federal  Government  is  responsible  to  a  great  degree  for  the  building  up  of 
the  wine  industry  of  California  to  its  present  magnitude,  by  the  establishment 
of  Government  Experiment  Stations  and  the  importation  of  scores  of  varieties 
of  grapes  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  testing  their  adaptability  for  suc- 
cessful culture  in  California,  and  distributing  them  to  the  growers.  There- 
fore, we  FEEL  JUSTIFIED  IN  DEMANDING  THAT  NO  ACTION  SHOULD 
BE  PERMITTED  ON  THE  PART  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  THAT  WILL 
RESULT  IN  IMPAIRING  AND  DESTROYING  AN  INTEREST  IT  HAS 
BEEN  SO  INFLUENTIAL  AND  SUCCESSFUL  IN  PROMOTING. 


A   CAMPAIGN   OF   WINE   EDUCATION. 

By  HORATIO  F.  STOLL, 
Commissioner,  State  Viticultural  Board. 


While  this  Congress  is  primarily  interested  in  the  technical  side  of 
viticulture,  we  must  not  overlook  a  pest  far  more  dangerous  than  phylloxera 
or  any  of  the  diseases  that  infect  our  American  vineyards.  I  refer  to  Prohi- 
bition, which  aims  to  wipe  out  the  wine  industry  in  this  and  every  other 
State  in  the  Union. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  our  winemakers  and  grape  growers  should 
strive  to  keep  up  the  standard  of  our  wines  and  grapes,  but  I  fear  that  they 
will  have  very  little  enthusiasm  for  the  industry  unless  they  are  given  some 
assurance  that  after  they  have  produced  the  choicest  grapes  and  made  the 
finest  wines,  the  growers  will  be  able  to  sell  their  grapes  to  the  wineries,  the 
wineries  dispose  of  their  product  to  the  dealers  and  the  dealers  reach  the 
consumer.  Something  must  be  done  to  assure  permanency  to  the  industry. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  25 

For  years,  our  bulk  wines  have  gone  to  the  Atlantic  and  Middle  West 
States,  but  our  efforts  to  popularize  bottle  goods  have  been  confined  pretty 
much  to  the  States  immediately  contiguous  to  California. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  spent  in  the  Northwest  and 
Southwest  by  leading  wine  firms,  and  an  excellent  demand  for  bottled  Cali- 
fornia wines  has  been  created.  But  almost  over  night,  these  markets,  which 
it  took  years  to  develop,  are  being  wiped  out  by  Prohibition. 

Only  recently  Washington,  Oregon,  Colorado,  and  Arizona  have  gone 
dry.  Our  winemen  took  little,  if  any,  active  interest  in  the  campaigns  waged 
in  those  States.  The  saloon  was  the  only  question  discussed.  If  competent 
speakers  had  spread  the  gospel  of  the  grape  in  those  four  States,  I  am  sure  a 
considerable  number  of  votes  would  have  been  swung  into  the  proper  column. 

It  is  a  pity  the  voters  did  not  understand  more  about  wine,  through  a 
previous  campaign  of  education.  I  believe  that  if  the  merits  of  wine  drink- 
ing had  been  properly  placed  before  the  people  of  Oregon  and  Washington, 
they  would  not  have  put  it  on  the  same  basis  as  whiskey,  viz.,  a  half  gallon 
only  to  be  imported,  thus  encouraging  the  use  of  the  stronger  beverage,  as, 
with  a  supply  once  a  month,  a  good  many  people  will  pick  the  most  con- 
densed form.  Wine  was  not  placed  on  the  same  basis  as  beer,  because  the 
voters  there  just  didn't  understand. 

Our  winemen  must  inaugurate  a  campaign  of  education  in  all  the  wet 
States  in  the  Union,  and  in  order  to  wage  an  effective  campaign,  we  should 
employ  trained  writers  to  secure  at  first  hand  authorative  facts  and  figures 
showing  the  sobriety  of  the  wine-producing  countries  of  Europe,  and  the 
fallacy  of  Prohibition  in  the  United  States. 

So  many  conflicting  stories  about  the  emergency  prohibition  measures 
adopted  by  the  nations  at  war  have  been  printed  in  the  American  press  that 
it  is  time  the  public  was  told  the  truth.  The  dry  leaders  would  have  us 
believe  that  Europe  is  about  to  adopt  Prohibition.  Russia  and  England  are 
cited  as  the  great  examples.  Neither  are  wine-drinking  or  wine-producing 
countries  and  I  am  sure  that  if  we  investigate  matters  carefully,  we  will 
find  that  neither  country  is  warring  on  wine — but  on  vodka  and  whiskey. 

The  French  Government,  while  it  has  outlawed  absinthe,  is  giving  wine 
to  its  soldiers  at  the  front. 

In  the  December  12th  issue  of  the  Revue  de  Viticulture,  the  most  import- 
ant viticultural  publication  in  the  world,  appears  an  article  headed,  "Wine 
for  the  Army,"  in  which  the  editor  writes: 

"The  five  months  of  hard  fighting  that  our  army  has  so  valiantly  waged 
against  the  enemy,  confirms  the  hygienic  information  that  other  wars  have 
brought  to  light. 

"How  many  of  our  soldiers  have  died  from  impure  water!  Thirsty 
soldiers  are  tempted  to  drink  water  from  doubtful  sources  during  forced 
marches — with  the  result  of  dysentery  or  typhoid. 

"The  results  in  the  army  have  demonstrated  new  proofs  of  the  energetic 
anti-microbian  action  of  wine. 

"The  Balkan  war  demonstrated  that  in  the  Greek  army,  the  regiments 
using  wine  always  showed  better  military  energy  and  a  superior  resistance 
of  typhoid  fever  over  those  not  using  wine  and  far  superior  to  that  of  the 
Turkish  army. 


26  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

"Our  doctors,  both  civic  and  military,  sustain  the  tradition  that  wine  has 
a  decidedly  efficient  influence  on  sick  and  wounded  convalescents. 

"In  the  trenches,  when  the  soldiers  suffer  from  cold  and  wet,  wine  is 
proving  of  the  greatest  use. 

"The  Government  and  its  prefects  make  appeal  to  the  patriotic  gener- 
osity of  the  grape  growers  for  supplies  for  the  soldiers.  The  Department  of 
the  Herault  pledges  3,750,000  gallons.  A  total  of  fifteen  million  gallons  of 
wine  would  supply  the  army.  Even  8,000,000  gallons  would  be  very  useful  to 
help  protect  2,000,000  soldiers  against  cold,  diseases,  typhoid  and  dysenteric 
contagion — four  gallons  per  capita  during  the  campaign  would  materially 
help." 

Needless  to  say,  the  army  has  been  well  supplied  with  wine. 

I  think  that  a  campaign  of  education  as  to  the  merits  of  wine  as  a 
temperance  beverage,  when  used  in  the  home,  in  the  hotels  and  in  the  cafes 
with  meals,  will  not  only  create  a  demand  and  a  wider  consumption  of  Cali- 
fornia wines,  but  will  also  have  a  powerful  influence  in  shaping  and  moulding 
public  opinion  in  the  desired  direction — that  of  excepting  wines  in  any  pro- 
hibitory legislation  which  may  be  enacted. 

Heretofore,  only  the  prohibition  side  has  been  presented.  This  point  was 
emphasized  by  a  visit  we  had  the  other  day  at  our  wine  exhibit  in  the  Food 
Products  Palace,  from  an  eminent  professor  of  an  Eastern  University. 

He  called  at  our  "Grape  Temple"  and  after  having  been  shown  around, 
entered  our  moving  picture  room  where  he  listened  carefully  to  the  talks  that 
accompanied  the  pictures,  and  asked  questions  now  and  then  so  as  to  under- 
stand the  points  made  by  the  speaker. 

At  three  o'clock  he  announced  that  he  must  keep  an  engagement  in  one 
of  the  other  buildings;  but  at  four  o'clock  he  was  back  in  his  seat  in  the 
moving  picture  room,  listening  and  studying. 

After  the  last  picture  had  been  shown,  at  five  o'clock,  he  approached  me 
and  said:  "This  has  been  a  very  profitable  afternoon  for  me,  but  I  have  one 
criticism  to  make.  Why  do  you  keep  this  wonderful  story  and  these  wonder- 
ful pictures  all  to  yourself?" 

"What  do  you  mean?"  I  asked. 

"Why,  no  one  outside  your  own  State  knows  anything  about  this  wonder- 
ful industry.  Why  don't  you  educate  the  public?  I  knew  that  wine  was 
produced  in  California,  but  had  no  idea  of  your  achievements  or  possibilities; 
your  ability  to  make  dry  wines,  sweet  wines  and  champagnes;  the  great 
acreage  you  have  devoted  to  grapes;  and  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  profit  of  your  raisin  and  table  grape  growers  comes  from  wineries  that 
use  their  surplus  production. 

"I  believe  that  you  should  let  people  beyond  your  own  borders  know  all 
this.  You  should  emphasize  the  purity  of  your  wines  and  show  the  outdoor, 
lives  of  the  grape  growers  and  winemakers.  I  am  sure  the  plain,  unvarnished 
facts  would  create  a  profound  impression." 

The  gentleman  went  on  to  say  that  nearly  all  the  big  universities  are 
provided  with  moving  picture  facilities;  that  they  would  be  glad  to  welcome 
pictures  such  as  he  had  seen  in  the  collective  wine  exhibit;  and  that  some- 
thing should  be  done  to  put  forward  arguments  in  favor  of  wine,  in  the  uni- 
versities. The  other  side — the  Prohibition  and  Anti-Saloon  League  forces — 
he  pointed  out,  never  miss  an  opportunity  to  address  classes  and  supplement 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  27 

their  arguments  with  anatomical  charts,  showing  the  harm  done  to  the  differ- 
ent organs  of  the  body  by  the  use  of  alcohol,  and  displaying  large  maps  to 
prove  that  the  whole  United  States  is  going  dry. 

"Take  your  pictures  East,"  said  this  enthusiastic  professor.  "Show  them 
in  our  universities,  in  the  public  schools.  Reach  the  coming  men  who  will 
decide  the  destiny  of  our  nation.  You  will  find  that  you  will  soon  be  able  to 
create  a  sentiment  that  will  spread  from  person  to  person  until  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  people  outside  of  California  will  know  of  your  wonderful  grape 
industry  and  will  hesitate  to  destroy  it  with  Prohibition." 

I  believe  this  Eastern  professor  is  right  and  that  we  should  at  once  send 
our  moving  pictures  on  missionary  work  throughout  the  Atlantic  and  Middle 
Western  States,  where  the  people  know  little  about  out  great  wine  industry. 
But  we  should  supplement  these  pictures  with  able  speakers,  educational 
literature  and  newspaper  articles  and  advertisements  urging  the  use  of  wine 
not  only  as  a  substitute  for  spirituous  liquors,  but  for  tea  and  coffee  at  tne 
dinner  table  because  wine  is  more  hygienic,  nutritive  and  wholesome. 

I  am  satisfied  that  there  are  hundreds  of  important  papers  in  the  United 
States  that  would  espouse  the  use  of  wine  in  the  home,  even  though  they 
might  be  in  favor  of  closing  the  saloons  and  opposed  to  running  a  whiskey 
advertisement. 

The  constant  drumming  of  the  slogan  of  this  campaign  that  the  drinking 
of  pure,  honest  California  wines,  builds  temperance,  and  is  the  best  means  to 
true  temperance,  is  bound  to  have  its  effects  on  the  public  mind. 

We  should  use  quotations  from  authoritative  writings  of  noted  men  like 
Dr.  Parkhurst,  Professor  Miinsterberg,  Cardinal  Gibbons,  as  well  as  physi- 
cians of  national  fame,  physical  experts,  famous  food  experts,  writers  of 
books,  big  men  in  politics  and  industry — persons  in  fact  who  enjoy  public 
confidence  and  whose  word  carries  weight. 

Alternating  with  these,  should  be  articles  showing  the  value  of  wines  in 
cooking,  in  the  preparation  of  beverages  suited  to  the  various  seasons,  such 
as  delicious  cooling  beverages  for  summer,  hot  drinks  for  winter,  and  the 
proper  use  of  wines  at  the  table. 

These  articles  should  also  give  an  idea  of  the  different  types  of  wines.  It 
is  a  fact  that  not  one  out  of  a  thousand  knows  the  character  of  wines  by 
name. 

It  has  often  been  said  that  the  wine  makes  the  dinner,  and  it  is  very 
true;  but  it  is  likewise  quoted  that  often  the  dinner  makes  the  wine,  which 
is  equally  true.  There  are  certain  classes  of  dishes  that  strikingly  bring  out 
the  characteristic  taste  and  flavors  of  wine,  and  other  dishes  mar  such  tastes 
and  flavors.  Therefore,  to  bring  forth  the  full  appreciation  of  the  finer  quali- 
ties of  any  special  wine,  the  public  should  be  taught  to  select  carefully  either 
such  dishes  of  food  as  will  make  these  peculiar  qualities  more  perceptible,  or 
at  least  not  clash  with  them  and  leave  on  the  palate,  through  this  harmony,  a 
full  appreciation  of  both  wine  and  food. 

We  must  teach  the  American  people  that  the  only  way  to  enjoy  wines  is 
to  drink  them  intelligently.  In  other  words,  the  food  or  dishes  offered  should 
be  made  to  harmonize  with  the  general  taste,  flavor,  and  bouquet  of  the  wines 
served.  For  instance,  as  Arphad  Haraszthy  once  pointed  out,  a  heavy  wine 
like  port,  or  even  a  heavy  claret,  to  a  lover  of  good  food,  would  not  be  en- 
joyed if  drunk  with  oysters  or  eggs.  These  tastes  do  not  harmonize;  there- 


28  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

fore,  as  this  rule  applies  to  white  wines,  to  claret,  and  to  champagne,  the 
utmost  discrimination  is  necessary,  and  considerable  experience  or  education 
is  required  to  select  wines  that  harmonize  with  the  different  dishes  offered. 

During  the  Prohibition  campaign  in  California  last  fall,  I  visited  the 
Cafe  Marcel  in  Los  Angeles  and  was  discussing  with  the  proprietor  the  disas- 
trous effects  prohibition  would  have  on  his  establishment.  To  my  surprise, 
he  said,  "I  don't  care  if  the  State  goes  dry  and  I  cannot  serve  liquor  with  my 
meals.  I  will  live  just  the  same.  But  if  they  will  not  permit  me  to  use  wine 
in  my  sauce  and  special  dishes,  my  reputation  as  a  chef  will  be  gone.  No 
one  can  cook  the  dishes  I  offer  without  wine." 

Those  who  have  traveled  abroad  will  tell  you  of  the  charming  home 
cooking  they  have  tasted,  and  how  the  skillful  and  thrifty  French,  Italian 
and  German  housewives  make  the  commonest  dishes  attractive  by  the  skill- 
ful use  of  wine. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  a  comprehensive  cook  book  be  compiled, 
giving  such  recipes,  within  the  reach  of  the  average  family.  I  believe  this 
would  be  an  admirable  means  of  interesting  people  throughout  the  United 
States  in  California  wines,  for  it  would  give  many  valuable  hints  to  the  house- 
wife who  is  always  ready  for  suggestions  that  will  enable  her  to  give  variety 
to  the  dishes  she  is  offering  the  family. 

Thousands  of  dollars  are  spent  each  year  during  the  hot  summer  months 
in  an  effort  to  get  the  public  to  use  grape  juice,  pineapple  juice  and  other 
fruit  juices  in  cold  punches.  Why  not  advertise  wine  as  a  summer  drink? 
Is  there  Anything  more  thirst-quenching  than  a  claret  lemonade — plain 
lemonade  with  a  flavoring  of  claret,  which  gives  the  beverage  a  delicious 
taste  and  a  ruby  coloring  that  is  particularly  pleasing  to  the  eye? 

Many  a  family  that  to-day  does  not  use  a  drop  of  wine  could  be  induced 
by  attractive  copy,  illustrated  with  tempting  colored  drawings,  to  use  our 
light  red  and  white  wines  in  punches  and  lemonades. 

The  viewpoint  of  the  prohibitionist  is  so  narrow  that  it  is  a  waste  of  time 
to  attempt  to  make  him  realize  the  distinction  between  drinking  our  light 
wines  at  the  table  with  meals  and  gulping  down  highly  spirituous  beverages 
over  a  bar. 

I  am  satisfied,  however,  that  if  a  comprehensive  campaign  of  education 
is  worked  out,  the  bulk  of  the  nation,  the  millions  of  moral  persons  who  live 
a  righteous,  sober  life,  and  practice  moderation,  will  see  things  in  the  right 
light. 

We  have  friends  and  they  are  numerous.  But  Prohibition  is  just  now 
fashionable.  Our  friends,  the  true  temperance  people,  do  not  choose  to 
trouble  themselves  about  the  progress  or  the  absurdities  of  prohibition. 
They  treat  the  subject  lightly  and  dismiss  it,  with  the  assertion  that  "a  reac- 
tion will  soon  set  in,"  or  that  "prohibition  will  never  carry  in  California." 

Nothing  is  further  from  the  truth.  We  know  the  experience  of  Oregon 
and  Colorado.  Both  States  defeated  Prohibition,  but  eventually  the  Prohibi- 
tion element  triumphed. 

In  1914,  we  in  California  had  a  taste  of  how  bitter  a  Prohibition  campaign 
can  be  made  and  in  1916,  we  will  have  to  undergo  another  fight  for  the  life 
of  the  industry. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  29 

Elections  are  to  be  held  in  half  a  dozen  other  States,  so  I  say  we  ought 
to  start  shaping  public  opinion  NOW,  start  creating  new  markets  for  our 
California  wine  NOW. 

Every  day  brings  us  nearer  to  the  time  when  the  whole  country  will  be 
face  to  face  with  the  prohibition  problem. 

We  have  a  just  cause  and  I  believe  that  if  the  grape  growers  and  wine- 
makers  of  California — yes,  and  of  the  whole  United  States — will  prepare  for 
the  crisis  and  give  as  much  time  and  thought  and  energy  to  this  great  ques- 
tion as  they  do  to  the  technical  and  commercial  side  of  the  industry,  they 
will  come  through  the  trying  ordeal  with  flying  colors. 


EARLY  CALIFORNIA  WINE  INDUSTRY. 

By  HENRY  LACHMAN, 
San  Francisco. 


Having  been  invited  to  prepare  a  paper  on  "Early  California  Wine 
Making,"  it  is  necessary  to  state  that  I  will  not  be  able  to  carry  you  back 
any  farther  than  the  seventies,  '76  being  my  first  recollection  of  California 
wines. 

At  that  time  I  knew  how  difficult  it  was  to  introduce  California  wines 
to  the  general  wine  drinker,  who  was  either  a  tourist  or  a  wine  drinker 
accustomed  to  the  European  taste. 

Most  wines  in  those  days  were  principally  a  blend  of  Bordeaux  wines 
that  came  out  as  ballast,  the  return  cargo  then  being  principally  grain.  The 
wine  handled  in  those  days  was  distributed  by  wholesale  whiskey  dealers. 
In  putting  a  wine  on  the  market  and  supplying  our  French  restaurants,  even 
though  we  sold  them  as  California  wines,  we  used  a  portion  of  our  French 
cargo  wine  in  the  blend  when  selling  in  bulk.  Later  there  was  a  demand 
for  bottle  wines.  The  California  label  was  not  accepted  for  a  fine  wine. 

There  were  also  skeleton  cases  in  those  foreign  bottoms  that  made  the 
trip — that  is,  the  case,  the  bottle,  the  straw  cover,  the  wrapper,  the  cork,  the 
cap,  and  more  often  the  label.  Before  bottles  were  manufactured  in  America 
they  were  shipped  out  here  in  crates,  as  were  also  the  straw  covers.  The 
making  of  cases  in  California  began  about  that  time. 

As  California  wines  began  to  improve,  instead  of  giving  them  a  half 
blend  of  foreign  wine  the  blend  was  reduced  to  possibly  about  80  per  cent 
California  and  20  per  cent  French.  The  demand  in  wine  at  that  time  was 
for  a  French  label,  mostly  fictitious  brands.  As  we  found  that  our  California 
wines  were  being  consumed,  it  was  in  1886  that  we  decided,  if  California 
wines  could  be  drunk  under  a  foreign  label  they  certainly  could  be  drunk 
under  their  own,  and  it  was  at  this  time  that  we  refused  to  bottle  any  more 
wine  other  than  under  a  California  brand  and  made  an  expose  through  the 
"Chronicle"  by  Tom  Vivian,  which  was  printed  broadcast,  as  "American 
People  Drinking  Label,"  and  from  that  time  our  California  wines  have  been 


30  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

considered  as  the  only  standard  wine  in  the  new  world  as  of  the  Euro- 
pean type. 

When  we  were  experimenting  with  our  different  grapes  we  were  watch- 
ing the  development  of  each  variety.  The  business  at  that  time  was  an 
interesting  study;  in  fact,  we  would  bring  out  different  types  of  foreign 
wines  and  see  how  closely  we  could  produce  wines  of  the  same  type.  I 
recollect  when  Mr.  Tubbs  brought  back  from  Europe  the  Merlots,  Beclans 
and  Cabernets,  which  we  would  ferment  and  blend  to  the  types  of  the  wines 
produced  in  the  Chateau  Leoville  district,  keeping  each  variety  intact.  We 
would  also  use  a  Cabernet  Sauvignon  and  a  Cabernet  Franc  in  a  blend  with 
a  Gamay,  and  I  remember  where  we  experimented  with  the  Semillon,  Sau- 
vignon Blanc  and  Muscatelle  de  Bordelais,  producing  a  wine  equal  to  any  of 
the  Sauterne  type. 

In  handling  each  one  of  two  different  varieties,  we  would  use  a  screen 
for  a  stemmer  and  would  have  a  hani  crusher,  watching  the  fermentation 
even  in  barrels.  After  the  vintage  v.e  always  wanted  to  see  each  variety 
kept  by  itself  and  wanted  to  do  our  own  blending.  In  fact,  wines  at  that 
time  were  being  made  along  lines  similar  to  those  in  small  cellars  of  Europe 
to-day.  The  Beam  Pres's  was  also  in  vogue  at  that  time  and  doubtless  could 
still  be  found  in  use  in  some  of  the  grape-growing  centers  of  Sonoma. 

There  was  a  certain  infatuation  to  wine  making  in  those  days  and  also 
in  the  blending  and  maturing  of  wines;  there  was  also  a  certain  individuality 
along  the  lines  of  working.  Old  oak  casks  we  would  look  upon  as  old 
acquaintances,  and  if  we  wanted  to  mature  a  wine  in  a  cask  that  previously 
contained  an  old  flavor,  we  would  always  treasure  that  package.  The  advent 
of  the  large  blending  redwood  tank  has  taken  away  the  picturesque  and  the 
sentiment  out  of  the  wine  business,  but  we  will  have  to  admit  that  the 
average  of  the  California  wines  as  produced  to-day  is  far  in  advance  of  the 
many  sour  tanks  that  we  encountered  in  the  olden  times. 

The  Mission  grape,  which  was  no  doubt  transplanted  to  this  country  by 
the  padres,  was  found  to  adapt  itself  to  our  soil  and  climatic  conditions  and 
from  this  grape  was  produced  the  first  wine  that  made  California  known  as  a 
wine-producing  section.  The  Angelica  made  from  this  grape  has  never  been 
excelled  by  wine  produced  from  any  other  variety,  and  as  a  general  utility 
grape  we  have  never  had  any  other  to  take  its  place.  The  white  wine  pro- 
duced from  it,  while  taking  longer  to  mature,  developed  qualities  equal  to 
some  of  the  finest  German  types,  the  saccharine  in  these  grapes  always 
maturing  to  not  less  than  24  degrees  sugar.  The  Sherry  made  from  these 
grapes  also  produced  a  fine  quality,  and  the  Brandies  were  always  considered 
desirable.  In  a  blend  as  a  Port  wine  it  always  met  with  favor.  In  fact,  the 
only  wine  that  we  could  not  produce  was  a  Claret.  I  can  safely  say  that 
even  to-day  these  Mission  grapes  should  be  replanted  in  the  sweet  wine 
district. 

In  former  days  when  our  cellars,  fermenting  houses  and  machinery  were 
not  so  perfected,  nor  the  control  of  fermentation  so  well  in  hand  as  it  is  at 
present,  many  mistakes  were  made  and  as  a  consequence  the  introduction 
of  California  wines  to  the  Eastern  market  was  not  an  easy  task.  Another 
fault  found  with  our  wines  in  those  days  was  the  complaint  on  red  wines,  or 
clarets,  they  being  criticized  as  having  an  "earthy"  taste.  Whether  this  was 
due  to  the  newness  of  the  soil  or  the  variety  of  the  grapes  planted  in  those 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  31 

days,  which  consisted  of  Charbonos,  Malvoisies,  along  with  Zinfandels,  the 
writer  has  never  been  able  to  find  out,  but  in  recent  years  this  objectionable 
taste  seems  to  have  disappeared  and  also  some  of  those  early  varieties  of 
grapes. 

I  don't  believe  that  at  any  time  we  ever  made  a  scientific  investigation 
into  the  varieties  best  suited  to  our  climate  and  soil,  nor  had  we  paid  much 
attention  to  soil  analysis  and  never  to  fertilizers.  The  early  wine-maker 
gained  his  experience  in  experimental  work  and  watching  his  local  condi- 
tions. At  one  time  the  European  wine  merchant  or  the  European  wine 
dealer,  after  studying  our  conditions,  would  tell  us  that  our  wines  were 
simply  grape  juice  and  only  fit  for  immediate  consumption  and  did  not  believe 
they  would  mature.  Occasionally  we  would  find  a  few  bottles  that  had  been 
set  aside  in  a  corner  for  ten  or  twelve  years  and  which  upon  sampling  we 
found  they  had  developed  the  fine  taste  shown  by  aged  wines,  and  on  many 
occasions  I  have  sampled  properly  matured  wines  against  some  of  the  finer 
types  in  Europe  and  was  convinced  that  wines  properly  selected,  carefully 
bottled  and  properly  stored,  would  command  the  same  praise  as  the  finer 
qualities  we  were  always  able  to  find  in  Europe  and  sold  in  our  own  country. 

It  seems  a  pity  that  the  old  fashion  of  private  cellars  and  setting  aside 
wines  to  mature  has  gone  out  of  date.  The  trouble  with  California  wine 
heretofore  has  been  due  to  the  distribution  end  of  it,  that  is,  educating  the 
people  to  the  collection  of  wines  as  they  would  stamps  or  coins,  as  there  is 
no  line  of  merchandising  that  has  as  much  infatuation  as  that  of  the 
maturing  of  wines. 

I  suppose  one  of  the  hard  rows  that  the  early  California  wine  man  had 
to  hoe  was  that  the  business  was  setting  itself  as  a  general  wine  introduction. 
We  did  not  have  the  white  wine  dealers  such  as  you  find  in  Germany,  nor 
did  we  have  the  man  handling  only  Clarets,  nor  the  man  only  introducing 
Sherry,  nor  a  Champagne  line  nor  a  Brandy  line.  The  California  wine  dealer 
was  supposed  to  acquaint  himself  with  all  kinds  of  grape  products  and  in 
those  days  we  were  even  turning  out  a  Vermouth,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
grapes  that  were  suitable  only  for  certain  varieties  were  being  used  for  all 
kinds  of  wine  making. 

The  California  wine  business  has  not  reached  the  stage  to  which  it 
properly  belongs  and  we  are  unquestionably  about  ten  years  behind  in  the 
marketing  of  our  wines.  We  cannot  understand  why  we  have  not  had  a 
world  market  when  we  know  our  grapes  are  equal  to  any  grapes  grown. 
Probably  one  of  the  reasons  that  can  be  advanced  is  lack  of  our  shipping 
commerce. 

Through  scientific  research  and  the  present  control  of  fermentation,  as 
well  as  the  improved  wine-making  machinery  and  more  care  in  the  selection 
of  grapes,  we  have  created  a  good  general  demand  for  all  kinds  of  wines. 
The  improved  Champagnes  that  are  being  put  on  the  market  to-day  have 
opened  the  eyes  of  many  who  thought  California  would  never  be  able  to 
perfect  this  style  of  wines.  We  are  still  lacking,  though,  in  producing  a 
brandy  similar  to  the  cognac  type,  and  won't  be  able  to  do  so  until  the 
Government  permits  the  blending  of  brandies  in  bond  as  done  in  France. 

There  is  no  question  in  my  mind  but  that  taking  the  general  average 
of  the  entire  output  of  our  various  wines  throughout  the  States,  from  an 
analytical  test  we  can  show  a  higher  standard  than  will  be  found  in  most 


32  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

European  countries,  and  I  hope  that  more  attention  will  be  paid  to  the 
selection  and  maturing  of  finer  qualities,  that  is,  aging  in  old  cooperage  that 
has  contained  nothing  but  the  better  types.  Sherry  responds  quicker,  I  be- 
lieve, to  showing  age  than  any  of  the  sweeter  wines.  A  white  wine  matures 
and  shows  its  finer  qualities  sooner  than  a  red  wine. 

Within  the  time  up  to  the  fire,  I  have  had  old  wines  that  I  knew  to  be 
twenty  years  of  age  (having  known  them  at  the  time  of  their  making)  that 
wouldn't  be  accepted  by  any  European  wine  drinker  as  a  California  product, 
which  goes  to  show  that  by  giving  the  same  care  and  attention  as  is  done 
in  proper  aging,  we  can  equal  the  wines  of  the  old  country. 

I  am  inclined  tc^  believe  that  the  prohibition  movement  will  educate  the 
American  people  to  the  use  of  wines  as  a  household  food  product  and  I  con- 
tend that  a  white  wine,  or  even  a  red  wine,  drank  with  about  50  per  cent 
of  water,  makes  a  more  palatable  drink  than  taking  the  wine  in  its  merchant- 
able state  when  drinking,  assists  the  digestion  and  quenches  one's  thirst,  at 
the  same  time  being  more  healthful  than  many  of  our  waters.  I  don't  believe 
carbonated  waters  are  healthful. 


LOVE  OF  THE  VINE. 

By  LEE  J.  VANCE, 
Editor  American  Wine  Press,  New  York. 


At  this,  the  first  International  Congress  of  Viticulture  in  America,  it 
seems  appropriate  to  refer  to  that  deep  and  tender  feeling  which  animates 
and  unites  grape  growers  all  over  the  world.  If  we  were  not  lovers  of  the 
vine  we  would  not  be  meeting  here  to-day. 

This  love  of  the  vine  was  born  when  the  human  race  was  created.  It 
thus  antedates  civilization  itself.  And  so  at  the  beginning  of  civilization  we 
find  man  planting  the  vine,  cultivating  it  with  care  and  skill,  gathering, 
treading  and  pressing  its  luscious  clusters  of  fruit,  and  drinking  the  juice  of 
the  grape  at  his  religious  ceremonies  and  on  all  social  occasions. 

I  need  only  mention,  in  passing,  how  the  love  of  the  vine  inspired  the 
people  of  ancient  Greece  to  celebrate  the  vintage,  or  grape  harvest,  with 
song  and  music  in  honor  of  Dionysus,  the  god  of  vine  and  wine.  Out  of  these 
festivals  was  evolved  the  magnificent  Greek  drama.  From  the  choral  hymn, 
called  the  dithyramb,  sprang  both  tragedy  and  comedy;  tragedy  meaning  the 
"goat  song,"  because  a  goat  was  sacrificed  to  the  god  before  the  hymn  was 
sung;  comedy  meaning  the  "village  song,"  as  it  was  marked  by  the  rude 
jests  of  the  rustic  carnival. 

The  Romans  had  a  deep  love  for  the  vine,  as  all  readers  of  the  old  Latin 
writers  well  know.  This  strong  feeling  for  viticulture  has  persisted  as  a 
notable  characteristic  of  people  of  the  Latin  race  down  to  this  day.  It  has 
had  a  great  influence  upon  their  daily  life  and  activities.  It  appears  in  their 
wonderful  art  and  in  their  splendid  literature. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  33 

Wherever  they  settled,  the  Romans  planted  the  vine  as  well  as  their 
civilization.  And  so  the  culture  of  the  vine  spread  from  Italy  to  the  south 
of  France,  and  thence  north  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  course  of 
time  Europe  became  covered  with  vineyards,  particularly  in  France,  where 
there  are  now  4,000,000  acres  of  vines,  and  the  grape  growers  are  the  back- 
bone of  that  country. 

In  Europe  the  love  of  the  vine  extends  from  nobleman  to  peasant.  Some 
of  the  oldest  and  best  known  vineyards  on  the  continent  are  the  properties 
of  the  nobility.  Every  gentleman  there,  with  a  farm  or  an  estate  which  is 
adapted  to  grape  growing,  has  his  vineyard,  and  he  mrkes  his  own  wine, 
which  he  offers  with  pride  to  his  guests  and  friends. 

The  early  immigrants  to  America,  who  came  from  the  vineyard  districts 
of  Europe,  brought  with  them  the  love  of  the  vine.  Some  carried  a  few  vines 
as  a  precious  part  of  their  small  possessions,  and  some  had  sent  to  them 
vines  which  they  planted  here. 

The  Spanish  explorers  and  settlers  first  brought  foreign  vines  into 
Mexico,  and  the  Spanish  Fathers  set  out  vines  about  their  Missions  in  South- 
ern California,  the  first  plantings  being  at  the  Mission  of  San  Gabriel  in 
1770.  The  popular  variety  thus  came  to  be  called  the  "Mission  grape,"  and 
it  was  extensively  cultivated  in  the  early  days  of  California  viticulture. 

The  original  promoter  of  grape-growing  in  the  New  World,  according  to 
Prof.  Hedrick,  was  Lord  Delaware,  who  in  the  year  1616  wrote  to  the  London 
Company  urging  the  culture  of  the  grape  in  the  new  colony  (Hedrick,  Grapes 
of  New  York,  page  6).  In  1619  the  company  sent  a  number  of  French  vine- 
dressers and  collection  of  the  best  varieties  of  French  vines  to  Virginia.  In 
that  year  the  Colonial  Assembly  passed  an  act  compelling  every  householder 
to  plant  ten  cuttings,  and  stated  that  the  landowners  were  expected  to 
acquire  the  art  of  dressing  a  vineyard.  Later  on  many  other  acts  to  induce 
grape-growing  in  the  Colonies  and  States  were  passed.  Thus  we  see  that 
legislative  encouragement  to  viticulture  began  at  an  early  date  in  the  United 
States. 

However,  the  early  efforts  to  grow  foreign  grapes  in  the  Eastern  States 
were  not  successful.  The  s'tory  of  these  efforts  forms  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting and  important  chapters  in  the  history  of  American  horticulture.  It  is 
a  long  story  of  constant  disappointments  and  failure,  and  only  an  intense  love 
of  the  vine  could  have  inspired  these  pioneer  growers  to  persist  in  the  face 
of  loss  and  possible  ruin. 

It  was  not  until  our  horticulturists  turned  their  attention  to  improving 
the  native  American  varieties  of  grapes  that  they  attained  a  large  measure 
of  success.  To  them  we  owe  most  of  our  best  varieties  of  native  grapes, 
such  as  Catawba,  Concord,  Delaware,  lona,  Ives,  Norton,  Noah,  etc. 

A  long  list  of  faithful  workers  helped  to  make  Eastern  viticulture  what 
it  is  to-day.  It  includes  the  names  of  William  R.  Prince,  whose  treatise  on 
the  vine  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  best  on  the  subject  for  many  years; 
Judge  Nicholas  Longworth  of  Cincinnati,  O.,  who  spent  forty  years  and  a 
large  fortune  in  establishing  vineyards  in  the  Ohio  Valley;  Dr.  E.  W.  Bull, 
the  originator  of  the  Concord  grape;  George  W.  Campbell,  the  originator  of 
the  Delaware  grape;  Edward  S.  Rogers,  the  originator  of  forty-five  seedlings 
known  as  Roger's  hybrids;  Dr.  C.  W.  Grant,  who  originated  the  lona;  James 
H.  Ricketts,  who  produced  many  hundred  seedlings;  Jacob  Rommel,  who  also 


34  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

produced  many  seedlings  of  value;  Prof.  T.  V.  Munson,  who  introduced  more 
hybrid  grapes  than  any  other  viticulturist  in  America,  if  not  the  world.  These 
men  devoted  their  lives  to  the  vine.  Their  work  was  largely  a  labor  of  love. 
Pew  of  them  ever  received  any  reward  or  profit  commensurate  with  their 
merit  and  ability. 

So,  too,  with  the  pioneers  of  California  viticulture.  They  planted  that 
others  might  reap.  Few  of  them  were  successful  in  a  financial  sense. 

I  think  few  people,  outside  of  the  viticultural  industry,  fully  understand 
and  appreciate  what  the  vine  grower  must  undergo  before  he  takes  a  load 
of  grapes  to  the  winery,  or  sends  a  basket  of  grapes  to  the  table  of  the  far- 
off  consumer.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  vine  culture  demands  more  care, 
skill  or  expert  knowledge  than  any  other  branch  of  agriculture.  Hence  the 
vine  growers  are,  as  a  class,  the  most  industrious  and  intelligent  of  all  men 
who  till  the  soil.  This  is  true  not  only  in  this  country,  but  in  the  vineyard 
districts  of  Europe. 

Again,  what  other  branch  of  agriculture,  what  other  industry  compares 
with  viticulture  as  regards  the  variety  of  difficulties  to  be  overcome  and  the 
number  of  enemies  to  be  met  and  conquered?  The  troubles  of  the  vine 
grower  begin  in  the  early  spring  and  last  until  the  crop  is  safely  gathered 
in  the  fall.  He  has  to  contend  with  the  elements,  with  nature,  and  even  with 
man.  A  sharp  spring  frost  may  nip  the  buds  and  blast  the  hopes  of  the 
grower  for  a  good  vintage.  In  summer  may  come  hail  and  thunderstorms 
to  damage  the  vines  and  their  growing  fruit.  Even  when  the  time  of  the 
vintage  is  at  hand,  and  the  grower  is  ready  to  gather  a  full  crop  of  grapes, 
if  there  come  early  frosts  or  heavy  rains  and  storms,  he  may  lose  10,  20  or 
30  per  cent  of  his  crop. 

Then  the  grower  has  to  combat  vegetable  diseases  and  insect  pests.  They 
are  the  parasites  of  the  vine,  for  they  feed  on  the  roots,  leaves,  buds  or 
fruit,  according  to  the  nature  and  habits  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 
The  list  of  vegetable  parasites  is  quite  long  and  includes  mildew,  black  rot, 
oidium,  anthracnose,  etc.  The  list  of  animal  parasites  is  also  long.  The 
worst  is  the  phylloxera,  which  is  a  terrible  scourge.  In  California,  as  in  all 
the  vineyard  districts  of  Europe,  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera  have  caused 
widespread  disaster  and  ruin  to  many  thousands  of  growers.  In  the  last 
fifty  years  in  France  alone  the  phylloxera  has  destroyed  more  than  two 
million  acres  of  vines,  representing  a  total  loss  of  about  one  billion  dollars. 

Last  but  not  least,  the  vine  grower  has,  sorry  to  say,  human  enemies. 
The  professional  prohibitionist  is  one  of  the  worst  of  these.  He  is,  in  a  way, 
a  parasite.  He  lives  on  his  work  of  destruction.  In  many  places  and  States 
the  grape  growers  have  been  the  innocent  victims  of  unjust  and  destructive 
legislation.  They  have  had  the  value  of  their  vineyard  properties  injured  and 
depreciated  by  prohibitory  laws.  They  have  sometimes  seen  the  fruits  of  their 
labor  turn  to  ashes.  In  no  other  civilized  country  of  the  world  has  grape 
growing,  which  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  honorable  pur- 
suits of  man,  suffered  more  from  harsh  and  oppressive  legisaltion  than  it  has 
here  in  the  Unied  States.  It  is  time  now  for  the  growers  to  insist  upon  their 
rights  and  to  demand  in  no  uncertain  voice  and  tones  to  be  let  alone. 

In  spite  of  numberless  difficulties,  in  spite  of  animal  and  vegetable  pests, 
and  in  spite  of  the  attacks  of  many  sleepless  enemies,  the  vine  grower  has 
abiding  faith  and  confidence  in  his  vineyard.  He  loves  it,  as  has  been  well 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  35 

said,  with  that  deep,  unreasoning^affection  which  a  mother  bears  to  her  child, 
and  the  greater  the  difficulties  in  his  way,  the  harder  the  struggle  to  keep 
the  vine's  enemies  at  bay,  the  stronger  does  his  love  for  his  vineyard  seem 
to  grow. 

The  love  of  the  vine  is  one  of  the  noblest  attributes  of  man.  It  is  as 
strong  to-day  as  it  ever  was.  You  can  no  more  drive  the  love  of  the  vine 
out  of  the  heart  of  man  than  you  can  expel  from  it  honor,  duty,  patriotism, 
and  religion. 


GRAPE  BREEDING. 

By  R.  D.  ANTHONY, 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

Read  by  Frederic  T.  Bioletti. 


It  was  only  after  a  hundred  years  of  failure  that  American  grape  growers 
could  be  induced  to  abandon  the  European  grape  and  seek  for  desirable  kinds 
among  our  hardy  native  species.  Even  then,  the  first  native  grape  extens- 
ively grown  was  deceptively  introduced  as  a  Vinifera.  The  marked  success 
of  the  Alexander  and  the  fortunate  discovery  of  the  Isabella  and  Catawba 
revived  interest  in  grape  growing  and  started  many  vine  enthusiasts  search- 
ing the  woods  for  better  sorts.  Although  this  resulted  in  the  production  of 
the  Concord,  but  little  else  of  value  was  secured  for  nearly  forty  years. 

The  second  milestone  showing  the  progress  of  grape  breeding  is  engraved 
with  the  date  1851  and  marks  the  pollinating  of  Rogers'  hybrids.  Valk  and 
Allen  had  both  used  Vinifera  blood  in  crossing  previous  to  this,  but  their 
results  were  not  so  promising  nor  so  extensive  as  those  at  Salem  and  they 
did  not  arouse  the  flood  of  enthusiastic  amateur  breeders  which  followed 
after  Rogers'  work  and  which  has  left  a  very  considerable  impression  upon 
our  grape  industry.  In  the  fifteen  years  following  the  dissemination  of 
Rogers'  seedlings,  nearly  one-quarter  of  all  the  grapes  cultivated  in  north- 
eastern United  States  were  introduced.  Although  many  of  the  Vinifera 
hybrids  were  disappointments,  nevertheless  the  introduction  of  this  blood 
was  an  epoch-making  event. 

The  last  sixty  years  have  produced  many  new  varieties,  yet,  from  a 
breeding  standpoint,  they  have  been  a  disappointment.  Concord  and  Catawba, 
poor  as  they  are,  still  remain  very  important  commercial  varieties  and  few, 
if  any,  hybrids  have  surpassed  Rogers'  first  attempts.  To  be  true,  Jaeger 
and  Munson  did  much  to  improve  the  grapes  of  the  Southwest,  but,  in  general, 
breeders  have  worked  without  plan  and  have  kept  only  meagre  records 
of  results. 

The  rediscovery  of  Mendelism  and  the  light  which  has  been  thrown  upon 
the  laws  of  inheritance  since  then  have  shown  breeders  the  necessity  of  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  before  any  considerable  success 
can  be  hoped  for.  To  gather  such  information  requires  years  of  painstaking 
effort  and  the  study  of  a  large  amount  of  material. 


36  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

The  North  Carolina  Station  reports  a  start  along  this  line  with  the 
Rotundifolia  grape,  and  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  discuss  briefly 
certain  results  which  have  been  secured  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  during  some  twenty-five  years  of  grape  breeding. 

During  this  quarter  century  some  200  varieties  have  been  studied  more 
or  less  extensively,  and  about  10,000  seedlings  have  been  grown.  One  of  the 
unexpected  results  was  the  failure  of  many  of  our  commercial  sorts  to  trans- 
mit desirable  qualities,  some  of  the  best  results  being  secured  from  little 
known  varieties.  This  is  why  it  has  seemed  best  to  test  such  a  large  number 
of  kinds. 

As  a  means  of  analyzing  the  genetic  composition  of  the  varieties  more 
than  3,000  selfed,  or  pure,  seedlings  have  been  grown.  While  these  have 
given  much  information  about  the  varieties  used  as  parents,  they  have  been 
so  uniformly  lacking  in  vigor  as  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  improved  sorts 
should  not  be  sought  through  this  method. 

The  large  number  of  cases  in  which  Vinifera  blood  is  found  in  the  grapes 
which  are  ranked  as  high  in  quality,  points  to  the  desirability  of  adding 
some  of  this  blood  to  our  native  species.  About  100  varieties  of  this  species 
have  been  grown  on  the  station  grounds  and  several  of  the  best  have  been 
used  in  the  breeding  work. 

Of  the  factors  which  are  being  studied,  only  a  few  have  sufficient  data 
available  as  yet  to  show  results  which  are  at  all  trustworthy.  These  are 
discussed  below. 

Self  Sterility. 

Grape  flowers  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  true  heraphrodites, 
hermaphrodites  functioning  as  females  because  of  abortive  pollen,  and  pure 
males  with  the  pistil  absent  or  rudimentary.  Among  these  classes  there  are 
two  types  of  stamens:  those  with  upright  filaments  and  those  in  which  the 
filaments  bend  backward  and  downward  soon  after  the  calyx  cap  falls  off. 

Results  so  far  secured  would  seem  to  indicate  that  all  pure  males  have 
upright  stamens  and  that  among  the  two  classes  which  produce  fruit,  the 
true  hermaphrodites  which  are  self  fertile  possess  upright  stamens,  while 
the  self  sterile  sorts  have  reflexed  stamens.  As  apparent  exceptions  to  this 
statement  there  are  a  few  varieties  with  reflexed  stamens  which  can  set  a 
small  amount  of  fruit  when  self  sterilized. 

From  a  practical  standpoint  it  is  undesirable  to  grow  self  steriie  sorts 
since  they  require  interplanting  with  other  varieties  in  order  to  secure 
pollination.  From  a  breeding  standpoint,  then,  one  of  our  problems  is  to 
eliminate  the  reflexed  stamens.  In  studying  this  problem  the  following 
results  have  been  secured: 

The  Cross.  Ratio  of  Seedlings. 

Upright  stamens  X  upright  stamens  =  4.3  upright:  1  reflexed. 
Reflexed  stamens  X  reflexed  stamens  =  1.2  upright:  1  reflexed. 
Reflexed  stamens  X  upright  stamens  =  1  upright:  1  reflexed. 

The  cross  upright  stamens  X  reflexed  stamens  has  failed  to  give  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  seedlings  to  show  the  ratio. 

While  these  results  do  not  show  us  any  way  in  which  to  eliminate  those 
varieties  with  reflexed  stamens  they  do  show  that  we  may  decrease  the 
proportion  by  the  use  of  varieties  for  parents  having  upright  stamens. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


37 


Inheritance  of  Sex. 

Fifty-one  pure  male  seedlings  have  been  produced  at  the  station  from 
known  parents.  A  study  of  these  makes  it  seem  reasonable  to  assume  that 
hermaphrodites  pollinated  by  pure  males  will  give  both  types  in  equal  num- 
ber, while  hermaphrodites  pollinated  by  hermaphrodites  give  only  herma- 
phrodites. 

Skin  Color. 

It  is  not  easy  to  differentiate  grape  colors  since  they  grade  from  the 
so-called  "white"  through  many  shades  of  red  and  purple  to  black.  This  wide 
range  has  greatly  complicated  the  problem  of  determining  the  color  composi- 
tion of  the  various  varieties.  The  several  thousand  seedlings  which  have 
been  fruited  have  made  possible  the  formulation  of  but  two  general  laws: 
(1)  White  is  a  pure  color  and  (2)  it  is  recessive  to  both  black  and  red. 

Tables  I,  II  and  III  give  the  results  from  the  various  color  combinations 
which  have  been  made  and  show  what  wide  variations  have  been  secured  even 
from  varieties  of  the  same  color.  A  careful  study  of  the  varieties  is  being 
continued  to  bring  order  out  of  these  conflicting  results. 

Table  I — Crosses  of  Similar  Colors. 


Color  of  i 

Seedlings. 

Parental   Types 

Black 

Purple  to 
Dark  Red 

Medium  to 
Light  Red 

White 

White  X  white 

_^ 

166 

*Light  red  X  light  red.. 
*Dark  red  X  dark  red.... 
Black  X  black  

8 
38 

407 

6 
43 

49 

13 
45 
13 

8 
42 

54 

Table  II — Color  Groups  of  Pure  Seedlings  of  Black  Varieties. 


Color  of  Seedlings 


•poH 

"Whitp 

6 

52 

16 

29 

6. 

128 

31 

10  

71 

25 

15  

132 

— 

Table   III — Combination   of   Colors. 


Color  of  Seedlings. 


Tfareniai  uomDinauons 

Black 

Purple  to 
Dark  Red 

Medium  to 
Light  Red 

White 

*White  X  dark  red  
*White   x   black  

5 
41 

44 
3 

14 
3 

50 
12 

*Black  and  dark  red  

100 

52 

40 

32 

*Includes  also  the  reciprocal  cross. 

t Light  red  varieties  were  not  used  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  make  the 
results  of  value. 


38  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

Quality. 

The  final  verdict  on  the  worth  of  a  seedling  depends  largely  upon  its 
quality,  yet  quality  is  made  up  of  so  many  factors  and  its  interpretation  de- 
pends so  much  upon  the  tastes  of  the  observer  that  it  is  a  very  difficult 
factor  to  study. 

When  seedlings  are  grouped  according  to  quality  it  is  immediately  seen 
that  even  when  parents  of  the  highest  quality  are  used,  only  a  low  percentage 
of  the  progeny  rank  as  high  as  good  while  few  reach  as  high  as  very  good 
and  none  could  be  graded  as  best  in  quality.  When  we  consider  the  ancestral 
history  of  these  seedlings  the  results  are  not  discouraging.  Our  native 
grapes  now  under  cultivation  are  but  one  or  two  generations  removed  from 
the  wild  and  represent  the  very  few  possessing  sufficient  quality  to  stand  out 
from  the  many  which  have  been  rejected.  The  low  quality  of  the  seedlings  is 
probably  due  to  the  leveling  influence  of  the  large  number  of  ancestors  of 
poor  quality.  The  importance  of  breeding  only  from  varieties  of  the  highest 
excellence  is  shown  by  the  rapid  decrease  in  the  quality  of  the  seedlings  as 
we  use  parents  of  poorer  quality. 

Pure  seedlings  have  proved  uniformly  poorer  in  quality  than  cross-bred 
seedlings — another  reason  for  not  attempting  to  grow  improved  grapes  by 
means  of  selfed  seedlings. 

Size  of  Berry. 

A  study  of  the  seedlings  at  Geneva  has  failed  to  show  any  indication  of 
dominance  of  any  one  size.  This  probably  means  that  size  of  berry  is  the 
result  of  the  interaction  of  several  factors.  There  is,  however,  a  steady 
decrease  in  the  seedlings  as  we  use  parents  of  smaller  size,  thus  showing 
that  each  variety  has  a  tendency  to  produce  seedlings  approaching  its  own 
size. 

Form  of  Berry. 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  studying  this  factor  has  been  the  inability  to 
find  varieties  which  are  pure  for  any  particular  form.  It  may  be  that  the 
extreme  oval  of  certain  pure  Viniferas  is  a  pure  form  but  certainly  the  less 
pronounced  oval  of  Vinifera  hybrids  gives  nearly  as  many  round  seedlings 
as  oval.  When  round  varieties  are  selfed  or  crossed,  seedlings  of  all  shapes 
are  secured  with,  however,  a  very  large  predominance  of  the  round  form. 

The  only  indication  of  purity  of  form  has  been  found  in  an  oblate  variety. 
Few  grapes  possess  this  form,  one  of  the  most  pronounced  of  these  being 
Goff,  a  seedling  produced  by  this  Station.  Selfed  seedlings  of  this  variety 
would  seem  to  show  it  to  be  pure  for  oblateness.  The  oblate  form  is  probably 
recessive  to  round,  in  fact  there  is  a  very  strong  tendency  for  roundness  to 
predominate  over  both  the  other  forms. 

Season  of  Ripening. 

The  period  of  ripening  of  a  variety  depends  so  much  upon  the  vigor  of  the 
vine,  the  season,  cultural  methods  and  environmental  conditions  that  it  is 
difficult  to  secure  accurate  data.  When  seedlings  are  grouped  according  to 
season  of  ripening  and  then  compared  with  the  season  of  the  parents  no  pure 
varieties  are  found  but  it  is  seen  that  the  season  of  the  parents  influences  to 
quite  a  marked  extent  the  average  season  of  the  progeny  though  individual 
seedlings  may  show  wide  variations. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  39 

The  Outlook  for  Grape   Breeding. 

Twenty-five  years  of  work  at  the  Station  at  Geneva,  involving  a  study  of 
thousands  of  seedlings,  has  resulted  in  the  production  of  but  six  seedlings 
worthy  of  naming.  This  would  seem  to  be  a  discouragingly  small  percentage 
as,  indeed,  it  would  be  were  it  not  for  the  mass  of  information  which  has  been 
gathered  from  these  discarded  seedlings.  We  cannot  hope  to  make  consist- 
ant  progress  until  we  have  established  more  clearly  the  fundamental  laws — 
no  easy  task  but  one  which  is  well  started  and  whose  successful  conclusion 
may  be  confidently  expected. 

Perhaps  it  would  not  be  wise  to  close  this  paper  without  a  word  of 
encouragment  to  the  amateur  breeder.  The  private  grower  can  not  hope  to 
carry  on  this  work  to  the  extent  and  with  the  continuity  that  can  be  secured 
at  our  Experiment  Stations.  On  the  other  hand  practically  every  variety 
now  under  cultivation  has  been  found  or  produced  by  the  lover  of  grapes 
working  in  a  small  way,  frequently,  as  Rogers  worked,  with  only  a  backyard 
at  his  disposal  for  growing  his  seedlings.  For  the  true  grape  lover  the 
pleasure  of  the  work  is  its  own  reward  but  there  is  always  the  hope  that  a 
fortunate  combination  of  parents  may  produce  varieties  superior  to  those 
now  under  cultivation.  Each  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  varieties  and  of 
breeding  laws  brings  this  end  so  much  nearer. 


INTRODUCTION  OF  VITICULTURE  INTO  THE  SCHOOLS. 

By  A.  W.  MILLER, 
Benicia  High  School,  Benicia,  Solano  County,  California. 

Read  by  Frank  T.  Swett. 

Before  discussing  viticulture  as  a  subject  of  instruction  in  the  schools 
I  wish  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  conditions  that  would  tend  to  make  it 
a  success  or  a  failure. 

Like  everything  else  of  any  value,  its  beginnings  will  be  halting  and 
counted  a  failure.  Suppose  some  school  man  introduces  viticulture  into  a 
high  school  in  a  grape-growing  region.  The  farmer's  boys  themselves  will 
know  more  about  grapes  than  their  instructor  and  the  average  man  "Would 
sink  with  bubbling  groan,  uncoffined,  unknelled  and  unknown." 

Yet  the  average  high  school  work  in  language,  literature,  mathematics, 
science,  history,  etc.,  is  no  better.  We  can  only  measure  the  high  school's 
inadequacy  when  it  tries  something  in  real  life.  Our  schools  may  as  well 
undertake  a  few  things  that  have  a  bearing  on  every  day  life  and  flounder 
around  until  they  succeed,  instead  of  expending  all  their  energies  upon 
academic  lines. 

While  the  farmer  would  laugh  at  the  meager  results  of  the  fellow  trying 
to  teach  agriculture,  he  does  not  realize  that  the  school  does  not  reach  a 
higher  degree  of  efficiency  in  any  other  line. 

The  community  itself  must  make  the  school.  The  teacher  can  but  inter- 
pret the  attitude  and  ideals  of  the  community.  That  place  in  which  the 


40  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

people  demand  and  do  their  best  to  have  an  efficient  school  will  attain  it, 
particularly  if  the  patrons  sympathize  with  the  difficulties  of  the  teachers 
and  help  overcome  them. 

The  grape  industry,  like  every  other  agricultural  industry,  depends  more 
for  its  success  upon  the  mechanical,  business  and  executive  ability  of  the 
man  in  charge  than  upon  his  knowledge  of  the  purely  technical  phase  of 
the  work. 

The  Government  experts  are  always  at  hand  to  give  the  theoretical 
instruction,  but  the  man  himself  must  run  his  own  machinery,  keep  his  own 
cost  accounts  and  get  the  work  out  of  his  men.  The  great  trouble  in  carrying 
on  all  farm  work  is  that  the  laborers  are  so  indifferent  to  their  work.  They 
need  to  be  inspired  with  a  desire  to  make  the  most  of  their  time  and  labor. 
They  decidedly  need  training  in  efficiency. 

The  mere  introduction  of  viticulture  itself  into  the  high  school  curriculum 
will  not  produce  any  result  of  value.  The  whole  course  of  instruction  must 
be  properly  reorganized  so  as  to  bear  as  completely  and  intelligently  as 
possible  upon  the  life  and  work  of  the  people  who  use  it.  A  properly  worked 
out  course  of  viticulture  in  such  a  school  will  be  of  use  to  a  community. 
Instruction  should  be  given  in  accounting  and  business  life.  Bookkeeping 
and  every  day  business  transactions  should  be  thoroughly  given.  Economy 
and  efficiency  should  be  constantly  emphasized.  Good  shop  and  manual 
training  courses  should  be  given,  finished  off  with  a  course  in  applied 
mechanics,  involving  the  use  of  gas  and  steam  engines,  and  electric  apparatus 
and  machinery.  Every  course  in  the  high  school  should  consider  as  much  as 
possible  the  problems  of  the  people's  lives. 

An  elementary  course  in  general  science  could  use  the  grape  to  illustrate 
much  of  its  principles,  so  could  botany,  physical  geography,  chemistry  and 
physics.  In  most  high  schools  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  introduce  a  course 
in  viticulture  separate  from  other  studies,  mainly  because  of  the  jealousy  of 
farmers  themselves  and  the  resenting  of  a  mere  school  man  telling  their  sons 
what  to  do,  when  the  farmers  know  more  about  it  than  the  teacher. 

But  if  the  courses  in  general  science,  botany  and  physical  geography  will 
use  all  the  data  they  can  that  comes  into  the  farmers'  lives  not  only  from 
viticulture  but  from  horticulture,  animal  industries  and  so  on,  the  school  will 
aid  the  community  very  materially. 

While  the  individual  farmer  with  the  vineyard  may  laugh  at  the  green 
school  man,  the  community  at  large  needs  training  in  its  own  industries. 
Take  the  pruning  of  grape  vines.  Where  is  there  a  large  vineyardist  that 
can  get  a  reliable  force  of  men  to  prune  his  vines?  Every  season  it  is  a 
recurring  problem.  Yet  there  is  not  a  country  high  school  that  may  not 
either  in  botany  or  general  science  or  in  both  subjects  touch  upon  the  subject 
of  pruning  in  general  and  that  of  grapes  in  particular.  If  such  was  done  and 
the  farmers  helped  the  green  school  man  with  a  few  kindly  suggestions, 
the  community  would  have  plenty  of  young  men  with  a  correct  knowledge 
of  pruning,  and  then  if  the  farmers  required  a  knowledge  of  this  from  those 
they  hire,  how  quickly  the  course  in  pruning  would  be  attended  and  in  a  few 
years  how  efficient  it  would  become. 

And  so  on  in  many  other  phases  of  the  subject. 

Of  course  the  school  man  must  be  a  capable  fellow.  The  misfits  will 
fail  at  first,  while  only  the  capable  will  succeed,  but  after  such  courses  be- 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  41 

come  well  established  even  the  ordinary  school  men  will  be  able  to  serve  the 
community  well. 

In  a  country  high  school  general  science,  while  treating  of  the  ordinary 
scientific  knowledge  of  every  day  life,  can  best  be  taught  by  taking  plant  life 
as  its  basis.  Much  of  its  material  can  be  taken  from  grape  growing,  for 
example:  the  varieties  of  grapes  and  their  origin,  the  budding,  grafting  and 
growing  of  cuttings,  diseases,  phylloxera,  resistant  stocks,  the  principles  of 
wine  making,  the  study  of  yeasts,  bacteria,  and  molds,  and  so  on.  Many  of 
these  subjects  have  a  bearing  on  other  things  as  well  as  on  the  grape 
industry. 

Botany  would  naturally  study  plant  life,  in  which  the  grape  could  be 
used  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  fruiting  habits  of  the  grape  studied  and 
pruning  emphasized. 

Physical  Geography  could  treat  of  the  soils  and  climatic  conditions. 

Chemistry  should  take  up  the  composition  of  the  wines,  the  changing  of 
the  sugar  to  alcohol,  the  other  elements  contained  in  the  wines,  and  the  sub- 
jects of  sophistification  and  amelioration. 

Physics  would  treat  more  of  the  mechanical  operations  of  farm  work  and 
there  is  an  unlimited  amount  of  material  for  illustrating  its  principles. 

If  in  any  high  school,  anything  of  an  agricultural  nature  is  given,  the 
study  of  the  grape  should  be  included.  In  those  places  where  the  grape  is 
grown  either  for  home  consumption  or  for  commercial  purposes,  viticulture 
should  be  strongly  emphasized. 

Of  the  whole  horticultural  group,  it  is  the  easiest  to  be  handled  in  regard 
to  cost,  ease  of  operation  and  establishment,  and  the  shortness  of  the  time  in 
which  it  can  be  covered.  It  is  particularly  fitting  in  California  because  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  grape  industry  in  its  several  fields  of  wine  making,  raisin 
growing,  and  the  production  of  table  grapes.  If  our  schools  are  to  present 
courses  in  various  vocational  lines,  viticulture  should  be  given  its  place. 

It  is  also  valuable  as  a  representative  subject.  Most  of  the  work  in  the 
schools  must  be  general  in  type,  giving  foundation  principles  that  can  be 
applied  specifically  after  the  pupils  get  out  in  life.  In  teaching  viticulture 
in  the  school,  the  foundation  principles  of  the  whole  fruit  and  vine  industry 
will  be  covered.  The  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  requirements  and 
preparation  of  the  soil  for  planting  a  new  vineyard.  While  the  grape  can  be 
profitably  raised  on  a  wider  range  of  soil  than  any  other  single  product,  yet 
the  variations  due  to  the  different  soils  are  very  important  and  the  grape  can 
be  used  as  the  means  of  their  study  and  their  preparation  and  care.  The 
adaptation  of  different  varieties  of  grape  to  different  soils  and  climate  is  a 
good  illustration  of  the  variation  due  to  soil  and  climate  and  if  the  subject 
is  well  treated  in  viticulture,  one  will  have  a  good  conception  of  it  for  any 
other  product  of  the  soil. 

The  propagation  of  the  grape  is  easy,  quick  and  interesting.  The  same 
results  with  any  kind  of  fruit  trees  would  take  much  longer  and  for  this 
reason  such  work  can  be  done  with  the  grape  to  an  advantage  in  high  school 
courses.  The  grafting,  budding,  and  raising  from  cuttings  can  all  be  done 
easily  by  the  high  school  pupils.  The  subject  of  resistant  varieties  and  their 
development  is  a  fascinating  study,  and  it  is  easy  to  have  the  different 
resistant  varieties  growing  on  the  school  grounds  for  study. 


42  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

At  the  high  school  age  it  is  often  easy  to  develope  in  young  people  a 
love  for  the  study  of  the  processes  of  plant  life.  The  grape  is  a  fine  subject 
to  treat.  The  budding,  the  grafting,  planting,  staking,  pruning,  and  shaping 
of  the  vine  are  all  things  that  awaken  their  interest  and  the  pupils  take  a 
pride  in  seeing  the  result  of  their  own  work  develope  before  the  four  years 
are  out.  With  the  ordinary  fruit  trees  very  little  results  would  be  obtained 
in  so  short  a  time.  Nor  does  it  take  a  large  piece  of  ground  to  carry  on  the 
work. 

The  system  of  pruning  could  be  illustrated  on  a  few  vines  and  visits  to 
vineyards  in  the  community  could  be  made.  This  should  be  done  both  dur- 
ing the  pruning  season  in  the  winter  and  the  ripening  season  in  the  fall. 
The  effects  of  pruning  upon  the  vines  could  be  shown  and  studies  of  the  bear- 
ing habit  of  the  grape  could  be  made. 

The  varieties  of  grapes  could  be  studied,  their  names,  time  of  ripening, 
appearance,  quality  and  use.  The  subject  of  the  ripening  and  gathering  of 
the  grapes  could  be  treated  under  the  general  head  of  the  ripening  and 
marketing  of  all  California  fruits.  The  chemical  changes  could  be  empha- 
sized and  the  effect  of  marketing  too  green  or  too  ripe  could  be  easily  and 
fully  brought  out. 

The  use  of  saccharorneters  in  testing  ripeness  bears  upon  physics  and 
chemistry.  In  fact  there  is  hardly  an  operation  but  what  has  some  general 
bearing  that  may  be  brought  out  as  well  as  its  special  application  to 
viticulture. 

The  transportation  and  conservation  of  the  grapes  is  intimately  related 
to  the  subjects  for  all  the  ripe  fruits,  and  the  marketing  problems  of  one  are 
also  the  marketing  problems  of  all. 

The  drying  of  raisins  may  be  treated  under  the  subject  of  dried  fruits  in 
general.  Some  experiments  as  to  the  food  value  of  raisins  would  be  very 
interesting  and  helpful. 

The  wine  making  might  or  might  not  be  introduced  into  the  school.  It  is 
a  subject  that  would  open  up  a  vast  field  of  technical  knowledge  and  if 
properly  given  should  be  interesting  and  instructive  even  to  those  who  are 
opposed  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages. 

The  mechanics  and  construction  of  a  winery  bring  in  the  problems,  which 
are  common  to  all  our  agricultural  work,  of  mechanical  efficiency  and  elimina- 
tion of  costs.  It  is  a  large  field  and  there  is  no  end  to  its  study  both  for  the 
college  man  and  the  practical  farmer.  Anything  further,  or  more  detailed 
and  specialized  in  the  study  of  viticulture  should  be  taken  up  in  the  advanced 
schools  and  departments  of  agriculture  in  the  colleges. 

It  would  be  hard  to  give  a  year's  course  of  pure  viticulture  in  high  school, 
but  it  could  be  included  in  the  course  of  horticulture.  The  writer  taught 
agriculture  for  one  year  in  the  Armijo  Union  High  School  at  Suisun-Pairfield. 
One  half  year  was  given  to  horticulture  and  one  half  year  to  the  study  of 
general  farm  conditions,  emphasizing  the  animal  industry.  In  this  work  the 
study  of  the  grape  was  emphasized  very  much. 

If  the  grape  has  been  studied  as  indicated  through  the  various  courses 
of  general  science,  botany,  physical  geography,  chemistry,  physics  and  horti- 
culture, there  would  hardly  be  a  place  in  the  high  school  curriculum  for  a 
course  in  pure  viticulture.  But  if  such  courses  are  not  given,  the  whole  sub- 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  43 

ject  might  be  combined  into  a  single  full  year  course  of  viticulture.    It  would 
be  best  to  take  up  the  work  as  it  actually  takes  place  in  the  vineyard. 
The  subject  matter  would  follow  about  the  following  sequence: 

a.  The  ripening  and  gathering  of  grapes,  the  means  of  testing  ripeness 
and  the  transportation  and  conservation  of  grapes.     Study  of  the  fruiting 
habit  of  the  grape.    Some  study  of  pests  and  diseases. 

b.  Varieties  of  wine,  table  and  raisin  grapes. 

c.  The  marketing  and  handling  of  table  grapes. 

d.  The  making  of  raisins,  marketing  and  handling  of  the  same. 

e.  The  principles  of  wine  making,  the  mixing  and  blending  of  grapes, 
f.     The  winery,  general  plan,  crushing,  steming  and  conveying  of  grapes, 

fermenting  and  storage  vats. 

g.  Red  and  white  wines,  areation,  temperature,  and  the  extraction  of 
color,  tanin  and  body. 

h.     The  pruning  of  the  grapevine. 

i.  Cuttings,  bench  grafting,  field  grafting,  and  the  planting  of  cuttings 
and  rooted  vines. 

j.  The  soil,  preparation,  cultivation  and  fertilization.  Laying  out  the 
vineyard. 

k.     The  Phylloxera  and  resistant  stocks. 

1.     Protection  from  frosts.    Green  manuring  and  suckering  of  vines. 

m.  A  repetition  of  the  study  of  the  fruiting  habits  of  the  grape  and  the 
subject  of  pollination. 

n.     Budding  and  field  grafting. 

o.     Pests  and  diseases. 

It  is  hard  to  write  out  an  exact  and  full  outline,  for  so  many  different 
parts  of  the  subject  interlap  and  can  be  studied  and  illustrated  at  the  same 
time  in  the  vineyards. 

The  students  should  be  continually  taken  to  the  vineyards  to  study  the 
subject  at  first  hand  as  well  as  from  text-books. 

DISCUSSION 

Discussion  of  Mr.  Stoll's  paper  was  called  for  by  the  President. 

Mr.  Hiram  Dewey,  of  New  York  City:  "In  reference  to  Mr.  Stoll's  sug- 
gestions regarding  the  moving  pictures,  I  want  to  say  that  at  the  banquet  of 
the  American  Wine  Growers  Association  at  the  Waldorf-Astoria  last  winter 
in  New  York,  one  of  the  gentlemen  who  sat  next  to  me,  who  were  the  presi- 
dent and  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
said,  'This  is  the  most  entertaining  banquet  I  have  ever  attended  in  my  life,' 
after  the  showing  of  the  vineyard  scenes  in  California  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  United  States.  I  wish  you  would  let  us  have  for  our  meeting  and  banquet 
next  winter,  other  reels  of  vineyard  scenes  in  California.  I  want  to  encourage 
you  in  California  in  regard  to  what  Mr.  Stoll  said  in  relation  to  the  part  the 
moving  pictures  play,  and  I  believe  they  should  be  increased  and  shown  to 
the  people  all  over  the  country  as  nothing  will  impress  them  so  strongly." 

President  Alwood  announced  the  death  of  Mr.  Henry  Lachman,  of  Mission 
San  Jose,  California,  a  few  days  previously.  The  paper  which  Mr.  Lachman 
had  prepared  was  read  by  Mr.  Sophus  Federspiel  of  San  Francisco. 


44  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

President  Alwood  announced  that  thirty  minutes  would  be  given  for  a 
discussion  on  the  question  of  the  Federal  Tax  on  brandy  used  in  the  fortifica- 
tion of  sweet  wines. 

Mr.  C.  E.  Bundschu,  of  San  Francisco,  spoke  of  the  work  the  California 
Viticultural  Commission  has  inaugurated  in  the  hope  of  getting  relief  from 
Congress,  and  invited  the  Eastern  delegates  to  give  their  views  on  the 
subject. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners, 
told  of  the  circulating  of  a  petition  throughout  the  State  by  the  Commission, 
the  petition  to  be  presented  to  Congress  at  the  first  opportunity.  Told  of  the 
opportunity  given  to  Californians  to  reach  the  ears  of  the  Congressional  party 
that  had  been  in  the  State  recently  on  its  return  from  Honolulu.  Spoke 
of  the  possibility  of  there  being  an  extra  session  of  Congress  in  September, 
and  the  hope  that  in  any  call  made  for  a  special  session  the  matter  of  this 
tax  might  be  included  so  that  the  ears  of  the  National  Government  might  be 
reached  at  that  time.  The  Commission  expects  to  have  6,000  or  7,000  names 
signed  to  the  petition  by  that  time,  and  said  that  all  of  the  California  delega- 
tion in  Congress  is  alive  to  the  situation  and  most  of  them  have  promised 
to  do  all  in  their  power  to  get  relief  from  the  present  conditions. 

"We  have  the  hearty  support  of  Senator  Phelan  and  Senator  Works," 
said  Mr.  Sheehan,  "and  of  Congressmen  Kahn,  Curry,  Nolan,  Church,  Raker, 
and,  in  fact,  all  of  our  Representatives  in  Congress  with  the  possible  excep- 
tion of  one  from  Southern  California.  This  State  is  very  weak  so  far  as 
representation  goes  in  Congress,  and  we  do  not  seem  able  to  get  anywhere  in 
matters  of  legislation  in  Washington,  and  I  think  it  is  timely  for  me  to  say 
to  the  Eastern  delegates  present  that  we  would  like  to  have  the  support  of 
their  Representatives.  We  are  not  asking  anything  unreasonable,  but  want 
to  protect  this  enormous  Viticultural  industry  of  our  State." 

Mr.  Lee  J.  Vance,  of  New  York:  "On  behalf  of  the  American  Wine 
Growers  Association,  I  believe  that  this  Association  is  composed  about 
equally  of  California  and  Eastern  wine  grape  growers,  and  you  will  have  no 
trouble  in  the  matter.  Our  legislative  committee  will  be  only  too  glad  to  co- 
operate. We  have  members  in  New  York,  Ohio,  New  Jersey,  Michigan  and 
other  States,  and  they  can  bring  pressure  to  bear  greater  than  any  other  part 
of  the  United  States." 

Mr.  Hiram  Dewey,  of  New  York:  "In  speaking  for  the  East,  I  will  say 
that  we  were  very  much  hampered  by  this  law  going  into  effect  so  suddenly 
last  year.  We  make  our  wine  in  September  and  October,  and  we  do  not 
fortify  it  until  April.  When  this  bill  was  being  drafted,  the  Eastern  and 
Western  wine  makers  had  representatives  in  Washington.  We  endeavored 
to  have  the  passage  of  this  bill  deferred  until  after  the  fortifying  was  done. 
When  we  went  to  the  office  of  Senator  Johnson,  of  Maine,  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  framing  this  bill,  he  showed  us  the  bill  they  had  been  working 
on  and  to  our  utter  surprise  we  found  a  clause  in  which  there  was  a  tax  of 
$6.00  per  case  on  champagne.  Most  of  the  champagne  made  in  the  United 
States,  as  you  know,  is  made  in  New  York. 

"With  reference  to  the  brandy  tax,  we  are  suffering  in  connection  with 
you  people  in  California  as  most  of  our  brandy  comes  from  your  State.  We 
have  to  pay  the  transportation  and  then  the  tax  besides.  We  should  use  our 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  45 

best  efforts  to  have  this  brandy  used  for  fortifying  wines  put  under  the  same 
regulations  as  denatured  alcohol.  The  brandy  put  into  sweet  wine  is  not  to 
make  it  more  valuable,  but  simply  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  public. 
Some  people  like  a  dry  wine,  but  some  cannot  drink  it  and  prefer  a  sweet 
wine.  A  great  percentage  of  the  sweet  wine  manufactured  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  medicines. 

"Why  should  we  be  taxed  any  more  than  the  man  who  uses  alcohol  in 
the  manufacture  of  other  articles? 

"I  assure  you  that  I  shall  interest  our  Eastern  legislators  as  much  as  it 
is  in  my  power  to  do  and  in  connection  with  those  who  are  associated  with 
me  to  bring  about  a  rational  change  in  this  law  during  the  next  session  of 
Congress." 

President  Alwood:  "I  have  had  considerable  experience  before  legis- 
lative bodies.  I  have  been  successful  sometimes,  and  sometimes  not.  You 
should  be  able  to  make  it  perfectly  clear  to  a  committee  just  what  you  want 
when  you  go  to  Washington.  If  you  want  to  use  the  spirits  for  preserving 
the  sugar  in  sweet  wines,  make  them  understand  it.  Get  the  matter  before 
them  simply  and  plainly,  and  I  have  no  doubt  you  will  achieve  your  object." 

The  Congress  adjourned  at  12:30  to  meet  again  at  half-past  one  o'clock. 


AFTERNOON  SESSION,  JULY  12,  1915. 
RESISTANT  VINES. 

By  GEORGE  C.  HUSMANN, 

Pomologist  In  Charge  of  Viticultural  Investigations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


The  subject  "Resistant  Vines"  was  assigned  me.  I  infer  Phylloxera 
Resistant  Vines  was  implied  and  will  treat  it  thus.  In  the  Vinifera 
regions  of  this  country  the  expression  "Resistant  Vines"  has  so  long  been 
thus  applied  that  unless  a  qualifying  term  is  used  it  is  understood  to  mean 
"Phylloxera  Resistant  Vines".  In  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture the  expression  has  a  broader  meaning,  as  it  has  in  other  countries. 

Thus,  for  instance,  from  1858  to  1862,  when  the  destruction  of  the  vine- 
yards of  France  was  feared  through  Oidium  for  which  there  was  then  no 
remedy  known,  American  Euvitis  varieties  were  imported  to  see  if  they 
would  resist  it.  This  was  before  anything  relative  to  their  resistance  to 
phylloxera  was  known. 

Records  show  that  cuttings  of  Catawba  and  Isabella  were  sent  to  France 
as  early  as  1825,  but  no  rooted  plants  of  American  Euvitis  were  sent  until 
1858  to  1863,  and  then,  by  a  singular  coincidence,  introductions  of  such  were 
made  about  the  same  time  into  France,  Germany,  Portugal,  England  and 
Ireland.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  phylloxera  was  introduced  on  some  of 
these  vines. 


46  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Phylloxera  injury  was  first  noticed  in  France  in  1863,  in  Austria  and 
Hungary  in  1868,  in  Switzerland  in  1874,  in  Australia  in  1875,  in  Spain  in 
1877,  in  Italy  in  1879,  in  Russia  in  1880,  and  in  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia 
in  1885. 

Mr.  Laliman  of  Bordeaux,  France,  was  the  first  to  notice  and  announce 
in  1869  the  resistance  to  phylloxera  of  American  grape  species.  Prof.  C.  V. 
Riley,  then  Chief  Entomologist  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Commission 
confirmed  the  statements  of  Laliman  in  1870,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
Aestivalis  species. 

M.  Gaston  Bazille  of  Herault,  France,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
attempt  to  utilize  their  resistance,  and  in  1869  tried  grafting  vinifera  on 
American  stocks.  In  1871  he  succeeded  in  growing  American  varieties  on 
Vinifera,  and  in  1872  he,  Planchon  and  Lichtenstein  succeeded  in  grafting 
Vinifera  on  American  stock. 

In  1873,  M.  Planchon  was  sent  from  France  to  this  country  to  study 
American  vines.  After  his  return  to  France  the  use  of  several  American 
grape  species  as  stocks  for  vinifera  spread  rapidly.  The  writer  recalls  heavy 
shipments  of  resistant  cuttings  made  to  France  in  1873  to  1876  by  his  father, 
George  Husmann,  from  Hermann,  Missouri. 

Prof.  Viala,  on  his  mission  to  this  country  in  1887,  did  most  valuable 
work  in  directing  attention  to  the  value  of  the  different  species  on  the 
different  soil  types. 

Space  and  time  prevent  mentioning  the  particular  services  rendered  by 
other  investigators  actively  participating  at  that  time. 

The  foregoing  explains  why  the  early  attempts  at  grape  growing  in 
the  eastern  states  of  this  country,  which  were  with  material  of  Vinifera 
varieties  the  settlers  brought  with  them,  resulted  in  failures.  These,  unknown 
to  the  settlers,  were  doomed  to  destruction  by  phylloxera,  and  no  permanent 
success  was  had  until  attention  was  given  to  the  improving  and  growing  of 
our  native  grapes. 

Therefore,  we  find  America  in  her  native  grapes  has  not  only  given  the 
world  new  fruits  but,  because  of  their  resistance  to  the  phylloxera,  has 
through  them  saved  the  viticultural  industry  of  the  world. 

Why  should  we  not,  therefore,  also  be  able  to  grow  Vinifera  varieties 
on  resistant  stock  in  many  of  the  States  of  this  country  where  they  are  not 
grown  now?  In  fact  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  proved 
this  more  than  ten  years  ago  in  experiment  vineyards  it  then  had  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast. 

Phylloxera  in  Vinifera  Regions  of  the  United   States. 

The  phylloxera,  which  is  not  a  native  of  California,  was  probably  intro- 
duced into  that  State  from  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  1880  it  was 
found  to  exist  in  Sonoma,  Napa,  Solano,  Yolo,  Placer  and  Eldorado  counties. 
No  careful  investigations  had  been  made  at  that  time  of  much  of  the  region 
farther  south  in  the  State.  It  probably  existed  in  Sonoma  County  as  early 
as  1873,  and  possibly  occurred  in  Sonoma  Valley  and  on  the  Orleans  Hills 
twenty  years  previous  to  that. 

Innumerable  remedies  have  been  suggested  and  tried  to  eradicate 
phylloxera  from  vineyards,  but  it  is  still  conceded  that  the  only  way  to  sue- 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  47 

cessfully  combat  it  is  to  reestablish  the  vineyard  on  resistant  stocks,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  vineyards  which  can  be  flooded  cheaply  and  sufficiently 
to  kill  the  insect. 

Early  Attempts  at   Resistant  Stocks  in  This  Country. 

The  varying  soil,  climatic  and  other  conditions  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
which  makes  it  possible  to  grow  such  a  diversity  of  products  in  that  region, 
has  proven  a  great  stumbling  block  in  the  reestablishment  of  the  vineyards 
on  resistant  stocks. 

Records  show  introductions  and  plantings  of  resistants  were  made  in 
California  as  early  as  1876.  In  the  winter  of  1880  to  1881  several  large 
orders  were  placed  for  resistant  vine  cuttings  from  east  of  the  Rockies. 

Some  of  the  earliest  introducers  accidentally  chose  varieties  well  adapted 
to  their  locations  and  soil.  For  instance,  near  Sonoma,  Vulpina,  (Riparia) 
introduced  from  Missouri,  not  only  showed  adaptability  to  soil  and  climatic 
conditions,  but  also  proved  congenial  stock  for  the  Riesling  and  Chasselas 
varieties  which  were  principally  grown  there. 

At  the  lower  end  of  Napa  Valley,  the  Vulpina  also  did  well.  As  a  result 
of  such  instances  as  these,  Vulpina  as  a  stock  was  planted  indiscriminately 
in  high  and  low  localities  and  on  various  soils,  particularly  in  the  Sonoma 
and  Napa  valleys,  the  vineyards  of  which  were  the  first  to  be  destroyed  by 
the  phylloxera.  There  being  but  few  localities  suited  to  Vulpina  in  Cali- 
fornia, failures  with  them  predominated. 

Then  again,  it  was  thought  Vitis  Californica  might  be  resistant.  With- 
out any  substantiation  of  this  by  1883  at  least  three  hundred  thousand  of 
these  had  been  planted. 

A  few  years  later  the  Lenoir,  having  done  remarkably  well  on  some 
soils,  all  who  could  secure  them  planted  such.  Had  more  vines  been  avail- 
able more  would  have  been  planted. 

Since  then,  Rupestris  St.  George  is  being  as  indiscriminately  used  and 
similar  mistakes  made  with  it. 

The  resistant  stocks  mentioned  and  all  others  of  merit,  a  number  of 
which  had  been  introduced  by  the  California  State  Experiment  Station  can 
be  expected  to  prove  valuable  only  under  conditions  and  soils  suited  to  them. 

Furthermore,  the  work  of  selecting  and  breeding  resistant  stocks  in 
European  wine  countries  has  been  largely  influenced  by  their  relative  ability 
to  endure  an  excess  of  lime  which  is  rarely  met  with  in  regions  of  this 
country  where  the  viniferas  are  commercially  grown  at  present,  so  that  the 
resistant  standards  established  by  the  French  cannot  be  accepted  as  infal- 
lible, or  in  fact  serve  more  than  as  a  general  guide  for  American  viticultural 
investigators  and  vineyardists. 

The  waste  of  money  spent  in  reestablishment  of  vineyards  in  California 
from  the  first  appearance  of  phylloxera  to  the  present  time  cannot  even  be 
approximately  estimated.  It  is  more  than  likely,  however,  that  at  least  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  acres  of  once  flourishing  vineyards  have  been 
destroyed  by  phylloxera  and  other  agencies  during  the  last  decades.  The 
claim  is  made  that  there  are  but  few  vineyards  in  California  that  are  more 
than  ten  years  old  at  the  present  time,  and  we  are  sorry  to  say  a  large  per- 
centage of  these  are  not  on  resistant  stock. 


48  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Factors  in   Resistance. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  not  familiar  with  the  subject  it  should  be  stated 
that  the  resistance  of  vines  depends  on  (1)  the  inherent  resistant  character 
of  the  vine,  and  (2)  its  adaptation  to  soil,  climatic  and  other  conditions. 
These  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  cogeniality  of  the  graft  with  or  to  the 
stock. 

The  inherent  characters  pertain  to  the  nature  of  the  plant,  which  more 
or  less  enhance  or  restrain  attacks  of  the  phylloxera;  causing  the  punctures 
of  the  insect  more  or  less  rapidly  to  produce  swellings,  nodosities  and  tuber- 
osities,  varying  in  size  and  number,  upon  roots  of  different  texture,  causing 
such  swellings  to  rot  more  or  less  easily,  rapidly  and  deeply,  and  by  that 
rot  determining  the  extent  and  rapidity  of  the  enfeeblement  of  the  roots 
and,  where  it  is  sufficient,  the  death  of  the  vine. 

The  roots  of  the  different  grape  species  vary  greatly  in  the  effects  the 
insect  injury  has  on  them,  as  well  as  in  the  likes  and  dislikes  the  insects 
seem  to  have  for  them.  Thus,  on  vinifera  varieties,  the  nodosities  usually 
rot  quickly  and  are  about  three  times  as  large  as  those  on  the  most  resistant 
American  species.  Vines  upon  the  roots  of  which  the  phylloxera  does  not 
remain  and  produces  no  injury  at  all  would  be  called  "immune".  Varieties 
of  some  of  the  American  species  are  not  injured  any  further  than  the  forming 
of  a  few  nodosities  on  their  roots.  Such  vines  have  a  very  high  resistance. 

In  fact,  on  a  determination  of  the  relative  number  and  size  of  nodosities 
found  on  the  roots  of  the  different  species,  the  resistant  ratings  of  these 
species  are  based. 

The  necessary  degree  of  resistance  for  the  production  of  good  crops 
varies  with  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  congeniality  of  scion  to  stock; 
otherwise  stocks  rating  16,  being  considered  sufficient  for  all  soils;  14  to  16, 
for  fairly  good  soils,  and  10  to  14  for  rich,  moist,  sandy  soils. 

Adaptation   to   Soil,   Climatic   and    Other   Conditions. 

The  ability  of  a  vine  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the  phylloxera  without 
serious  injury  is  influenced  greatly  by  the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  in 
which  it  is  grown.  This  may  either  increase  or  diminish  the  vigor  of  the 
plant  and  retard  or  favor  the  reparation  of  the  insect  injury. 

The  soil  and  climate  also  affect  the  resistance  by  being  favorable  or 
unfavorable  to  the  approach,  dissemination  or  activity  of  the  phylloxera. 
For  instance,  sand  of  a  certain  fineness  hinders  the  insect  in  traveling  from 
the  root  of  one  vine  to  that  of  another,  etc.  Climatic  variations  also  affect 
the  multiplication  of  the  insect. 

Then  again,  a  vine  variety  which  resists  splendidly  in  one  locality 
perishes  in  another  having  the  same  soil  but  a  different  climate,  or  in  another 
having  the  same  climate  but  a  different  soil.  This  is  due  not  only  to  the 
adaptability  of  some  species  to  a  moist  and  others  to  a  drier  soil  or  to  a 
moist  or  dry  climate,  but  also  largely  to  the  root  systems  of  the  species, 
which  vary  from  horizontal  to  vertical,  from  thick  to  thin,  and  from  soft  to 
hard  with  intermediate  grades  between  these  extremes. 

For  instance,  how  could  a  horizontal  root  system  thrive  in  a  dry,  hot 
climate  and  what  could  a  deep  rooting  system  do  in  a  shallow,  hard  soil, 
or  a  moisture  loving  variety  where  there  is  but  little  moisture,  or  vice  versa. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  49- 

A  variety  under  congenial  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  etc.,  will  frequently 
prove  more  resistant  than  one  having  greater  inherent  resistance,  but  which 
is  not  adapted  to  the  particular  conditions. 

The  congeniality  existing  between  scion  and  stock  also  influences  the 
resistance  of  phylloxera. 

Causes  like  these  and  many  others  affect  the  resistant  qualities  of  vines. 

Department    Researches    in    Vinifera    Regions. 

In  a  survey  made  by  the  writer  in  1902  to  1903  of  the  region  in  which 
the  vinifera  is  commercially  grown  in  this  country,  it  was  found  that  exceed- 
ingly serious  conditions  prevailed.  As  all  efforts  to  check  the  devastation 
of  the  phylloxera  had  failed,  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
was  looked  to  for  aid  and  in  1904  undertook  a  comprehensive  investigation 
of  the  entire  subject. 

To  afford  facilities  for  systematically  prosecuting  these  and  other  prob- 
lems coming  up  for  solution,  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
located  and  maintained  experiment  vineyards  at  Brawley,  Colfax,  Chico,  Elk 
Grove,  Fresno,  Geyserviile,  Guasti,  Livermore,  Lodi,  Mountain  View,  Oakville, 
Sonoma  and  Stockton,  California. 

These  were  located  with  special  reference  to  different  soil  and  climatic 
conditions,  higher  and  lower  altitudes,  nearness  to  and  distances  from  ocean, 
bays  and  other  bodies  of  water,  and  to  bring  out  the  typical  differences  of 
grape  products  derived  in  different  sections  under  varying  conditions.  A 
mechanical  analysis  and  correlation  of  the  soils  in  each  of  these  vineyards 
has  been  made,  and  weather  records  are  kept  in  them  to  enable  us  to  use- 
fully apply  results  for  the  benefit  of  intending  growers. 

To  obtain  additional  data  on  such  minor  differences  of  soil,  climatic  and 
other  conditions  not  found  in  any  of  the  experiment  vineyards  and  to  encour- 
age others  to  research  work,  distributions  of  vines  and  cuttings  are  made 
to  persons  willing  to  report  results  had  with  them. 

Species  and  Varieties  of  Grapes  Under  Test  in  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture    Experiment   Vineyards. 

All  vinifera  varieties  of  importance  are  being  tested  on  all  stocks  con- 
sidered valuable.  Of  the  twenty-three  species  of  grapes  native  to  North 
America,  fourteen  have  been  found  sufficiently  important  to  have  special 
attention  given  them.  These  are:  Vitis  aestivalis;  v.  berlandieri;  v.  bicolor; 
v.  candicans;  v.  champini;  v.  cinerea;  v.  cordifolia;  v.  doaniana;  v.  labrusca; 
v.  linsecomii;  v.  longi;  v.  monticola;  v.  rupestris  and  v.  vulpina. 

These,  amongst  other  reasons,  have  been  selected  with  special  reference 
to  the  conditions  under  which  they  thrive  as  natives. 

A  description  of  these  species  and  where  they  are  found  native  is  given 
in  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bulletin  No.  172.  As  our  researches  progressed 
a  number  of  other  species  have  become  represented  in  the  vineyards.  In 
the  quest  of  resistant  stocks  suited  to  soil,  climatic  and  other  conditions  and 
that  are  at  the  same  time  congenial  and  lasting  stocks  on  which  to  graft 
vinifera  varieties  many  difficulties  are  encountered. 

For  instance,  a  stock  might  be  suited  to  the  soil,  but  be  so  hard  to  root 
as  to  make  its  commercial  use  impracticable;  again  the  stock  might  be  suited 


50  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

to  the  soil,  root  easily  and  be  resistant,  but  not  be  congenial  to  the  vinifera 
varieties  it  is  desired  to  graft;  or  the  congeniality  might  otherwise  be  good 
but  the  fruitfulness  of  the  graft  be  impaired.  Then  again,  in  many  cases,  no 
species  of  resistant  is  entirely  suited  to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions. 

In  order  to  overcome  such  and  other  difficulties,  hybrids  are  being  pro- 
duced, using  as  parents,  in  breeding,  native  American  species  possessing 
the  various  qualities  desired.  A  number  of  the  best  resistant  stocks  are 
hybrids  of  this  nature.  We  are  testing  an  extensive  assortment  of  such 
hybrids  and  so  called  direct  producers,  hybrids  between  vinifera  and  Ameri- 
can Euvitis,  some  of  which  it  is  hoped  will  produce  sufficient  fruit  of  desirable 
qualities  and  prove  resistant,  thereby  eliminating  considerations  of  con- 
geniality and  cost  of  grafting. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  same  vinifera  varieties  grafted  on  dif- 
ferent resistant  stocks  are  sweeter  on  one,  more  acid  on  another,  ripen 
earlier  on  some,  later  on  others,  are  more  productive  on  some  stocks  than 
on  others;  in  fact  often  are  entire  successes  on  some  stocks  and  failures 
on  others.  This  shows  the  ideal  conditions  are  the  best  adapted  resistant 
stock,  tops  producing  the  finest  fruit  of  sufficient  quantity,  and  congeniality 
between  tops  and  bottoms  permanent  and  good. 

There  are  more  than  nine  hundred  varieties  under  test  in  the  Depart- 
ment's Pacific  Slope  Experiment  Vineyards.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 
Bulletin  No.  172  gives  full  account  of  the  Department's  Viticultural  researches 
in  vinifera  regions  up  to  the  time  the  bulletin  was  written.  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  209  gives  a  full  account  of  such 
researches  since  then  to  date. 

March  27,  1915. 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING  AMERICAN  GRAPES. 

By  F.  E.  GLADWIN. 
Vineyard  Laboratory  Fredonia,  N.  Y. 


The  questions  of  how  a  variety  should  be  pruned,  long  or  short,  when 
the  pruning  should  be  done,  and  how  the  canes  should  be  disposed  upon  the 
trellis  are  ever  recurrent.  They  come  not  only  from  the  beginner  in  com- 
mercial grape  growing,  the  garden  grape  fancier  but,  in  large  numbers,  from 
vineyardists  of  many  years'  experience.  It  is  probable  that  no  one  phase 
of  grape  growing  is  so  little  understood  in  its  fundamentals  as  this  sub- 
ject. One  of  the  causes  that  has  contributed  to  this  condition  in  a  large 
measure,  in  certain  sections  of  eastern  United  States,  is  the  all  too  common 
practice  of  leaving  the  pruning  to  professional  pruners,  who  see  the  vineyard 
at  but  the  one  season  of  the  year  and  hence  are  unfamiliar  with  it  during 
the  growing  period.  The  sole  basis  in  this  instance,  for  determining  the 
amount  of  fruiting  wood  to  be  left,  is  the  amount  of  wood  made  during  the 
previous  season.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  Concord  may,  in  some 
cases,  make  a  very  vigorous  growth  of  wood  and  yet  fail  to  mature  its  fruit 
properly.  Without  this  information  the  professional  pruner  cannot  prune 
intelligently.  We  have  growing  on  our  Experiment  Grounds  a  Concord 
vineyaid  eight  years  set.  Each  year  the  vines  make  a  large  wood  growth, 
and  if  one  were  to  judge  from  this  alone,  it  would  appear  that  at  least  ten 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  51 

buds  more  per  vine  could  be  left  without  injury  to  them.  Yet  in  this  vine- 
yard the  fruit  matures  poorly  unless  the  fruiting  wood  is  reduced  much  below 
what,  the  season's  growth  would  indicate,  should  be  put  up. 

In  the  Chautauqua  Belt  a  crop  of  four  tons  of  Concord  to  the  acre  is 
considered  a  very  good  one.  As  the  more  recent  plantings  are  made  in  rows 
eight  feet  apart  and  the  vines  are  spaced  eight  feet  in  the  row,  this  yield 
would  be  borne  by  about  680  vines  at  an  average  of  11.8  pounds  per  vine. 
In  order  to  return  this  yield,  from  forty  to  fifty  clusters  will  be  required 
from  each  vine.  The  buds  for  furnishing  this  amount  of  fruit  may  be  on 
canes,  on  spurs  or  a  combination  of  both.  As  each  shoot  bears  from  two  to 
three  clusters,  usually  two,  and  as  some  buds  may  be  imperfect,  be  broken 
off  in  the  tying,  or  the  shoots  injured  later,  it  is  well  to  leave  more  buds 
than  is  actually  required  to  furnish  the  desired  amount  of  fruit.  Under 
unfavorable  conditions,  the  same  number  of  buds  will  not  produce  equal 
amounts  of  grapes  in  any  two  seasons,  so  that  the  principle  advantage  in  a 
consideration  of  the  number  to  be  retained  is  in  gauging  overbearing  rather 
than  as  a  forecast  of  the  crop.  In  some  seasons,  the  secondary  buds  produce 
at  least  one  marketable  cluster  in  addition  to  the  two  or  three  returned  by 
the  primary  ones.  It  is  to  be  preferred  that  the  vines  be  underpruned 
rather  than  over. 

The  time  for  pruning  American  varieties  varies  considerably  with  vine- 
yardists,  varieties  and  localities,  but  as  a  rule,  the  period  extends  from  the 
falling  of  the  leaves  in  the  fall  to  just  before  the  swelling  of  the  buds  in  the 
spring.  Some  vineyardists  even  prune  after  the  sap  flow  has  become  vigor- 
ous, claiming  no  injury  therefrom.  It  has  been  observed  that  when  this 
late  pruning  is  done,  and  the  sap  flows  down  over  the  lower  buds,  that  a 
freeze  severely  injures  and  often  kill  those  covered  with  sap.  And  from 
this  standpoint  alone,  late  pruning  is  not  to  be  recommended.  As  there  is 
a  considerable  sap  flow  within  the  vine  even  before  there  are  external  evi- 
dences of  it,  it  is  best  not  to  delay  the  pruning  in  order  to  lessen  frost  injury, 
through  retardation  of  the  exfoliating  buds.  Thus  far  we  are  not  able  to  see 
any  favorable  affects  on  fruitfulness  from  late  pruning.  It  is  good  practice 
to  delay  the  pruning  until  after  one  or  more  severe  freezes  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter,  as  an  index  of  the  maturity  of  the  wood.  The  immature  canes 
will  wither,  and  the  poorly  ripened  tips  will  be  killed  back,  thus  making  it 
possible  to  discard  any  such  for  the  next  years'  supply  of  fruiting  wood. 
Late  fall  or  early  winter  pruning  are  desirable  from  the  fact  that  a  large 
amount  of  food  from  the  canes  will  have  undergone  translocation  to  the 
stem  and  lower  parts  of  the  vine  and  hence  is  not  lost  to  the  vine  by  their 
early  removal.  It  is  quite  probable  that  under  ordinary  conditions  trans- 
location  has  been  completed  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  third  week  after 
leaf  fall.  As  soon  as  sap  flow  begins  in  the  spring  the  food  in  the  stem  and 
larger  roots  is  carried  to  the  canes  and  arms  again  and  if  the  pruning  be 
delayed  till  this  time,  it  will  be  removed  with  the  wood  cut  away.  There  is 
no  reason  physiologic  or  otherwise  why  American  varieties  cannot  be  pruned 
to  the  best  advantage  any  time  between  these  periods  of  translocation  if  the 
vines  have  well  matured  wood.  But  if  the  wood  is  not  such,  the  work  should 
not  be  begun  until  after  severe  freezes.  In  sections  where  snow  covers  the 
ground,  a  greater  part  of  the  winter,  the  pruning  should  be  done  as  far  as 
possible  when  the  least  amount  is  on,  so  that  access  can  be  had  to  the  growth 


52  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

springing  from  the  ground  level  or  just  above  it.  The  axiom  "Never  prune 
when  the  wood  is  actually  frozen"  has  some  foundation  in  fact,  for  frozen 
canes  are  brittle  and  are  easily  broken  during  handling. 

In  the  fall  of  1911  an  experiment  was  started  in  a  Concord  vineyard 
eight  years  set  to  determine  the  affects  of  pruning  at  two  widely  separated 
periods  of  the  dormant  stage.  Five  rows  consisting  of  about  68  vines  each, 
trained  on  five  different  systems  were  pruned  in  the  fall,  approximately 
three  weeks  after  the  leaves  had  fallen.  Five  other  rows  immediately 
adjacent  to,  and  representing  the  same  five  systems  were  pruned  in  the 
spring  a  short  time  previous  to  the  starting  of  sap  flow.  In  the  fall  of  1912 
records  of  fruit  yields  from  the  five  pairs  of  rows  were  taken.  As  these 
vines  were  planted  in  rows  eight  feet  apart  with  the  vines  six  feet  apart  in 
the  rows,  there  are  907  vines  to  the  acre  as  against  680  when  ordinarily 
planted  eight  feet. by  eight  feet.  The  following  table  shows  the  yields  for 
the  two  periods: 

Fall  pruned  Spring  pruned 

Tons  per  acre  Tons  per  acre 

6.98  6.98 

6.9  6.75 

6.2  5.98 
2.76  4.3 

6.3  5.94 

The  variations  appearing  between  the  fall  and  spring  pruned  vines  in  this 
table  are  by  no  means  consistent  and  are  those  that  are  common  to  any 
acreage  of  grapes  or  other  fruits,  grown  under  commercial  conditions. 

The  following  table  is  a  compilation  of  the  yields  for  1913  in  the  same 
vineyard: 

Fall  pruned  Spring  pruned 

Tons  per  acre  Tons  per  acre 

2.48  2.94 

2.75  2.5 

2.82  2.96 

3.33  2.03 

2.24  1.64 

Here  again  it  is  seen  that  while  three  of  the  plats  of  the  fall  pruned,  re- 
turned somewhat  larger  yields  than  the  companion  spring  pruned  rows, 
nevertheless  two  of  the  spring  pruned  in  turn  yielded  the  higher..  In  practi- 
cally all  of  our  experiments  this  natural  variation  has  shown  prominently. 
Certainly  the  data  as  here  given  does  not  warrant  the  drawing  of  conclu- 
sions pro  or  con. 

The  yields  for  the  season  of  1914  are  as  follows: 

Fall  pruned  Spring  pruned 

Tons  per  acre  Tons  per  acre 

6.2  7.4 

6.4  7.0 
5.6                                                                                    5.9 
5.8                                                                                    6.5 
7.1                                                                                    7.3 

For  the  first  time  since  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  we  see  that  all 
the  spring  pruned  plats  yielded  slightly  higher  than  the  fall  pruned.  The 
increase  ranges  from  1.2  tons  per  acre  down  to  the  minimum  0.2  tons.  If 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  53 

we  leave  the  experiment  with  but  the  three  years'  results,  we  are  not  able 
to  draw  definite  conclusions,  even  though  those  of  1914  point  to  the  superior- 
ity of  the  spring  pruned.  It  will  require  a  number  of  years  of  experimenta- 
tion to  prove  satisfactorily  the  superiority  of  one  period  over  the  other  so 
far  as  the  pruning  of  Concord  is  concerned. 

Judicious  pruning  of  the  grape  is  more  essential  than  the  training  to 
any  particular  system,  but  there  does  necessarily  exist  a  relationship  be- 
tween pruning  and  training.  It  is  quite  obvious  that  varieties  short  pruned, 
will  have  their  fruiting  wood  disposed  somewhat  differently  on  the  trellis 
from  those  that  are  long  pruned.  Where  the  vigor  of  a  variety  permits  and 
its  fruiting  habits  are  consistent  with,  it  may  be  pruned  for  training  to  one 
or  more  of  the  common  systems,  but  in  many  instances  a  variety  is  such  a 
poor  grower  that  it  cannot  be  adjusted  to  a  preferred  system.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  certain  varieties  do  best  when  pruned  to  conform  with  the  train- 
ing of  some  particular  type.  Further  the  disposal  of  the  fruiting  wood,  as 
made  possible  with  some  systems,  favors  the  development  of  fruit  of  better 
quality,  and  wood  for  the  following  crop  so  placed  on  the  arms  and  stem 
that  it  can  be  utilized  to  the  best  advantage.  Other  systems  favor  the  best 
development  of  wood  at  points  unsuitable  for  future  use,  although  the  fruit 
may  be  of  good  character.  We  have  found  that  the  sugar  content  of  the 
Concord  fruit,  when  pruned  to  the  Chautauqua  System,  varies  from  different 
parts  of  the  same  vine.  The  fruit  from  the  higher  half  gave  for  an  average 
thirteen  per  cent  more  sugar  than  from  the  lower  portion.  While  the  amount 
of  acid  was  greater  in  grapes  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  vine  than  from 
the  upper.  Some  of  the  systems  now  in  common  use  favor  this  difference 
in  even  greater  degree  than  the  Chautauqua.  Others  operate  to  lessen  the 
differences  by  promoting  a  more  equable  sap  flow. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  strong  growing  varieties  like  Concord, 
Niagara,  and  Clinton  do  their  best  when  trained  according  to  the  drooping 
type,  while  weaker,  slower  growing  ones,  like  Delaware,  Dutchess,  and  lona, 
can  best  be  trained  to  some  form  of  the  upright  type,  all  conditions  being 
the  same.  The  terms  here  used  refer  to  the  position  the  bearing  shoots 
assume,  rather  than  that  of  the  canes.  The  drooping  and  the  upright  types 
are  commonly  used  to-day,  while  the  horizontal  type  has  generally  been 
discarded. 

The  drooping  type  is  best  represented  by  the  Kniffen  system  and  its 
various  modifications.  The  growing  shoots  of  the  season  are  not  tied  but 
are  allowed  to  hang  free.  Thus  there  is  but  one  tying  at  a  time  previous  to 
the  starting  of  the  buds.  The  type  is  characterized  by  a  relatively  long 
stem,  and  two  to  four  short  arms  or  branches.  In  all  the  modifications  of 
the  type  the  fruit  is  carried  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ground  and 
well  disposed  between  the  two  wires  and  just  below  the  lower  one. 

In  our  experiments  we  have  used  three  forms  of  the  Kniffen  type, 
namely,  the  Single-Stem  Four-Cane,  the  Umbrella  and  the  Two-Stem  Four- 
Cane.  Inasmuch  as  the  trellis  is  practically  the  same  for  each,  it  will  be 
described  at  this  time  for  the  three.  Two  wires  are  employed,  one  placed 
at  a  height  of  about  three,  or  three  and  a  half  feet  above  the  ground  level, 
and  the  other  above  it  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet.  Posts  eight  to  eight  and 
a  half  feet  in  length  are  required  to  allow  for  this  height  of  wires.  They 


54  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

may  seem  to  be  unnecessarily  long  but  after  they  have  been  driven  several 
years  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  not. 


Fig.  1.     Single  Stem  Kniffen  System. 

With  the  Single-Stem  Kniffen.  (Fig.  1),  a  single  trunk  or  stem  is  carried 
directly  to  the  top  wire  the  third  year  after  planting,  or  if  the  growth  is  not 
long  enough  at  this  time  it  is  carried  to  the  lower  wire  and  there  tied.  The 
following  year  a  cane  from  this  is  extended  to  top  wire,  thus  the  stem  is 
formed  for  a  period  of  years.  In  event  of  a  complete  stem  to  the  upper  wire 
in  the  third  year,  it  is  good  practice  to  break  out  many  of  the  developing 
shoots,  and  allow  only  the  strongest  to  grow,  and  those  that  arise  close  to 
both  the  lower  and  upper  wires.  The  stem  should  be  tied  tightly  to  the  top 
wire  and  somewhat  loosely  to  the  lower.  The  girdling  resulting  at  the  top  is 
not  objectionable  as  the  head  of  the  vine  is  preferred  somewhat  below 
rather  than  at  or  above  the  wire.  This  facilitates  the  bending  and  tying  of 
the  canes.  When  the  shoots  have  become  sufficiently  hardened  those  that 
are  growing  in  proximity  to  the  wires  should  be  loosely  tied  to  them  in  order 
that  they  may  not  be  broken  off  during  cultivation.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  year  a  typical  vine  should  consist  of  a  stem  extending  from  the 
ground  to  a  point  just  below  the  top  wire.  From  this  all  but  four  canes  and 
four  spurs  of  two  buds  each  have  been  cut  away.  Two  canes  and  two  spurs 
are  therefore  located  below  each  wire  level.  As  the  sap  flow  is  most  vigorous 
at  the  top  of  the  stem  from  four  to  six  buds  more  are  left  on  the  upper 
canes  than  on  the  lower.  A  vine  that  has  made  sufficient  growth  so  that  the 
stem  goes  to  the  upper  wire  the  third  year  will  probably  support  the  fourth 
season  canes  aggregating  twenty-two  buds  with  eight  additional  buds  on  the 
spurs.  If  the  growth  has  been  slight,  only  a  half  of  this  number  should  be 
left.  It  is  far  better  to  err  with  the  lesser  number.  The  tying  at  this  time 
consists  of  fastening  the  stem  rather  loosely,  with  ordinary  grape  twine,  to 
the  lower  wire,  and  with  the  same  material  the  canes  are  tied  down  to  and 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


55 


along  the  two  wires  to  the  right^and  left  of  the  stem.  The  canes  are  tied 
tightly  and  just  in  from  the  last  bud.  When  thus  tied  they  cannot  slip  out 
of  the  twine  and  the  girdling  does  not  interfere  with  the  fruiting  wood  of 
the  following  year.  The  two  upper  canes  support  the  head  of  the  stem  so 
that  no  tying  of  it  is  necessary.  In  ordinary  seasons  tying  at  this  time  is 
sufficient  for  the  year,  however,  if  the  conditions  for  rapid  growth  are  un- 
favorable, the  twine  may  rot  away  before  the  tendrils  have  firmly  taken  hold 
of  the  wires,  and  a  partial  second  tying  may  be  necessary.  Where  the 
acreage  is  not  extremely  large,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  break  off  all  clusters  on 
the  shoots  growing  from  the  spurs  shortly  after  they  are  formed.  The 
primary  purpose  for  their  retention  is  not  for  fruit  this  year  but  to  furnish 
the  fruiting  wood  for  the  following. 

After  the  close  of  the  fourth  season,  the  pruner  has  a  considerable 
choice  of  fruiting  wood  for  the  following  year.  It  may  be  chosen  from  the 
basal  canes  of  the  preceeding  year's  fruiting  wood  or  the  canes  that  have 
developed  from  the  spurs  may  be  used.  The  choice  depends  upon  the  rela- 
tive accessibility  and  maturity  of  the  wood.  At  each  pruning,  the  possibili- 
ties for  obtaining  fruiting  wood  for  the  following  year  should  receive  careful 
consideration,  and  provision  made  for  it.  It  is  possible  to  use  the  same  spurs 
for  two  or  three  years  but  after  this  time  they  should  be  entirely  cut  away 
and  new  ones  obtained.  As  far  as  possible  after  the  first  spurring,  the  spurs 
should  be  selected  from  the  stem  or  wood  that  is  older  than  two  years.  The 
shoots  from  such  wood  bear  but  little  fruit,  and  hence  make  good  fruiting 
canes  for  the  next  year. 


Fig.  2.     Umbrella  Kniffen  System. 


56  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

With  the  Umbrella  Kniffen  (Fig.  2),  the  stem  is  brought  up  to  the  top 
wire  in  the  same  manner  as  with  the  Single  Stem  and  a  head  formed  just 
below  it.  When  the  vines  are  pruned  at  the  close  of  the  third  year,  all  the 
canes  are  cut  away,  but  two  at  the  head  of  the  vine  and  two  renewal  spurs. 
The  canes  are  left  long  enough  so  that  they  can  be  carried  up  over  the  top 
wire  and  then  obliquely  down  to  the  lower,  where  they  are  tied  to  it  just 
above  the  last  bud.  The  carrying  of  the  canes  over  the  upper  wire  lends 
considerable  support  to  the  stem  and  firmly  fixes  the  canes,  so  that  they  are 
rarely  blown  down.  The  renewal  spurs  may  furnish  the  canes  for  the  year 
coming,  or  they  may  be  gotten  from  the  basal  shoots  of  the  canes  of  the 
previous  year.  The  same  attention  to  the  maintenance  of  a  goodly  supply 
of  renewal  spurs  should  be  given  as  in  the  Single  Stem  Kniffen.  The  amount 
of  fruiting  wood  put  up  each  year  with  this  system  is  considerably  less,  how- 
ever, so  that  the  yield  will  be  somewhat  less. 


Pig.  3.     Two-stem  Kniffen  System. 

The  Two-Stem  Kniffen  (Fig.  3),  as  the  term  implies,  maintains  two 
stems  instead  of  one,  as  in  the  preceding  systems.  One  is  carried  to  the 
top  wire  as  before  described,  where  the  fruiting  canes  are  taken  off  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  with  the  others.  The  second  stem,  however, 
reaches  only  to  the  lower  wire  or  preferably  just  below  it.  At  this  level 
two  canes  are  tied  to  it.  In  a  typical  vine  both  stems  arise  at  or  near  the 
ground  level.  In  another  modification  of  the  Kniffen,  the  Y  stem,  the  point 
of  divergence  is  midway  between  the  ground  and  the  lower  wire.  The 
methods  for  pruning  and  maintenance  of  fruiting  wood  is  the  same  as  with 
the  Single-Stem  Kniffen,  except  that  each  stem  supports  but  two  canes  and 
two  spurs.  The  canes  are  tied  to  the  two  wires  exactly  the  same. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  57 

A  consideration  of  the  values  of  the  three  systems  for  grapes  of  equal 
vigor  with  Concord  will  not  be  out  of  place  at  this  time.  The  Single-Stem 
Kniffen  has  proven  a  very  desirable  method  of  training.  The  wires  being 
some  distance  from  the  ground  serves  to  keep  all  the  tender  growing  parts 
out  of  the  way  of  tillage  tools.  The  same  statement  applies  to  the  Umbrella 
and  the  Two-Stem  Kniffen.  With  all  three  the  canes  are  spaced  for  good 
air  drainage,  the  growing  parts  are  not  crowded  together  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  make  conditions  favorable  for  Powdery  Mildew.  The  pendant  position 
of  the  shoots  disposes  the  leaves  and  clusters  so  that  they  are  readily  reached 
by  spray  mixtures.  All  three  systems  facilitate  pruning,  tying  and  harvest- 
ing, as  all  the  fruit  is  borne  practically  between  the  two  wires  and  but 
slightly  below  the  lower.  The  Single-Stem  Kniffen  has  produced  the  largest 
yield  of  the  three  for  the  four  years  that  the  experiment  has  been  conducted, 
a  yearly  average  of  six  tons  per  acre.  The  Two-Stem  Kniffen  follows  with 
5.3  tons,  which  is  in  turn  followed  by  the  Umbrella  with  5  tons. 

The  Umbrella  has,  however,  produced  the  best  fruit,  not  only  as  to 
ripeness,  but  also  in  size  of  cluster,  size  of  berry  and  compactness.  The 
Single-Stem  falls  short  in  these  respects,  while  the  Two-Stem  is  very  much 
below  the  last  named.  It  fails  particularly  in  the  ability  to  mature  its  fruit, 
much  of  it  remaining  red  and  unmarketable  for  dessert  purposes. 

The  availability  of  fruiting  wood  has  been  greatest  in  the  Umbrella 
Kniffen  as  it  has  also  been  the  most  mature.  The  Single-Stem  Kniffen 
ranks  second;  while  the  Two-Stem  Kniffen  is  a  poor  third.  If  the  fruit  is  to 
be  used  entirely  for  dessert  purposes  the  writer  recommends  the  Umbrella 
Kniffen  as  a  very  desirable  system.  If  the  grapes  are  for  unfermented  juice 
or  wine  the  Single-Stem  possesses  many  advantages.  The  Two-Stem  Kniffen 
can  probably  be  discarded  as  an  unsatisfactory  system  of  this  type  of  train- 
ing. It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  these  statements  are  made  for  the  Con- 
cord growing  under  the  best  conditions  of  soil,  fertilization  and  tillage. 
These  conditions,  however,  are  met  in  a  great  many  vineyards  in  eastern 
United  States.  The  vines,  however,  have  in  no  way  been  pampered. 

The  upright  type  of  training  includes  those  systems  in  which  two  or 
more  canes  or  arms  are  carried  along  a  horizontal  wire  or  obliquely  across 
two  or  more  such  wires.  The  different  systems  of  this  type  naturally  fall 
into  two  classes,  characterized  by  the  terms  Cane  Renewal  and  Spur  Re- 
newal, according  as  the  fruiting  wood  is  obtained.  The  Spur  Renewal,  so  far 
as  the  training  of  Concord  is  concerned,  may  be  eliminated  from  a  considera- 
tion, commercially.  The  Cane  Renewal  further  separates  into  two  groups, 
the  High  Renewal  (Fig.  4)  and  the  Arm  (Fig.  5).  The  High  Renewal,  as 
the  name  implies,  eliminates  practically  all  of  the  old  wood  each  year  back 
to  the  stem.  While  in  the  Arm  system  more  or  less  permanent  arms  are 
maintained.  The  High  Renewal  carries  no  wood  over  one  year  old,  except  the 
stem  and  spurs,  while  with  the  Arm  system,  in  addition  to  the  old  stem, 
arms  two  years  of  age  and  over  are  maintained,  according  to  the  wishes  of 
the  vineyardist. 


58 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Fig.  4.     High  Renewal  System. 


Fig.  5.     Arm  System. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  59 

With  both  the  High  Renewal  and  the  Arm  system  the  wires  are  situated 
at  practically  the  same  heights.  With  the  former  three  wires  are  required 
while  with  the  latter  two  is  the  usual  number  although  three  may  be  used, 
and  in  many  cases  is  preferable.  In  eastern  United  States  the  Arm  system 
is  generally  the  common  one  employed  in  growing  the  Concord,  especially 
in  the  Chautauqua  "belt".  Here  it  is  known  as  the  Chautauqua  or  Tree 
system.  The  High  Renewal  is  in  general  use  for  training  the  Catawba  in 
the  Keuka  Lake  District  of  New  York. 

The  lower  wire,  with  the  two  systems,  is  placed  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
inches  above  the  ground  level,  and  with  the  Arm,  if  but  two  wires  are  used, 
the  second  is  about  thirty-four  inches  above  the  lower.  If  three  are  employed 
the  wires  stand  about  twenty  inches  apart  with  both  systems. 

With  the  Arm  training  two  canes  are  tied  up  at  the  beginning  of  the 
third  year,  if  the  vines  be  vigorous.  If  growth  has  been  but  scant,  but  one 
cane  is  left,  while  with  extremely  unfavorable  growth  it  is  cut  back  again 
to  two  buds.  The  canes  are  carried  obliquely  to  the  upper  wire  when  the 
growth  permits  and  there  firmly  tied  either  with  twine  or  fine  wire.  The 
latter  is  more  commonly  used  now.  They  are  loosely  tied  to  the  lower. 
The  pruning  for  the  fourth  year  consists  in  cutting  away  all  but  two  or  three 
canes  and  a  number  of  spurs  on  the  canes  of  the  previous  year.  The  vine 
now  consists  of  two  arms,  arising  from  near  the  ground,  with  two  or  three 
canes  of  the  previous  year,  and  several  two-bud  spurs  at  intervals  along  the 
arms.  As  far  as  possible  those  canes  that  have  arisen  but  a  short  distance 
above  the  lower  wire  are  selected,  other  conditions  being  equal.  All  the 
old  wood  projecting  beyond  the  last  cane  on  each  of  the  arms  is  cut  away. 
The  canes  (now  arms)  of  the  third  year  are  bent  down  from  their  oblique 
position  and  tied  firmly  to  the  lower  wire,  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  center 
of  the  vine.  These  are  now  the  more  or  less  permanent  arms.  The  vine 
at  this  time  consists  of  two  arms,  arising  from  near  the  ground,  tied  to  the 
lower  wire  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  center,  and  on  these  are  two  or  three 
canes,  pruned  long  enough  to  reach  to  the  middle  wire  at  least,  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases  to  the  upper.  They  are  tied  so  that  they  stand  in  a  verti- 
cal or  oblique  position.  Along  the  arms  at  intervals  of  a  few  inches  are 
spurs,  consisting  of  two  buds.  If  the  vineyardist  maintains  the  arms  per- 
manently these  furnish  the  fruiting  wood  for  the  succeeding  year.  At  the 
pruning  for  the  fifth  year  one  of  the  arms  is  cut  away  entirely,  close  to  the 
point  of  its  origination.  The  remaining  arm,  reaching  from  the  ground  to 
a  point  a  few  inches  below  the  level  of  the  lower  wire,  now  becomes  the 
permanent  stem.  The  vineyardist  has  two  options  for  selection  of  the  fruit- 
ing wood.  But  first  he  must  provide  for  the  arm  cut  away.  This  is  done  by 
the  selection  of  a  cane,  arising  from  the  remaining  arm  at  a  point  below 
the  lower  wire,  either  directly,  or  from  a  spur  left  for  the  purpose.  This  is 
pruned  to  reach  the  top  wire  and  is  tied  obliquely  to  it.  This  cane  at  the 
next  pruning  is  tied  down  to  the  lower  wire  and  becomes  the  second  arm. 
Then  the  same  selection  of  canes  and  spurs  is  made  from  it  as  was  made 
at  the  previous  pruning,  and  the  canes  tied  up  as  before.  However  if  the 
grower  desires  to  retain  the  arms  of  the  preceding  year  for  a  few  years, 
canes  that  have  grown  from  the  spurs,  may  be  tied  up  and  provision  made 
for  the  following  year  through  further  spurring.  Spurs  may  be  obtained 
from  canes  that  have  arisen  from  dormant  buds  on  the  arm,  or  by  spurring 


60  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

in  the  basal  canes  of  the  fruiting  wood  of  the  year  previous.  A  combination 
of  both  methods  of  renewal  will  in  the  long  run  work  out  the  better,  as  the 
repeated  spurring  in  of  the  basal  canes  will  result  in  greatly  lengthened 
spurs  that  will  require  frequent  cutting  out.  While  the  canes  that  arise 
directly  from  dormant  buds  on  wood  two  years  and  over  are  not  funda- 
mentally the  best  fruiting  ones,  they  can,  however,  be  utilized  for  renewal 
purposes.  The  ideal  vine  pruned  to  this  system  now  consists  of  a  stem 
reaching  from  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  above  the  ground  level.  From 
the  head  two  arms  arise,  one  extending  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left 
and  tied  along  the  lower  wire,  each  arm  not  extending  for  more  than  two 
feet  and  a  half  to  either  side  of  the  head.  From  the  arms  two  canes  on  each 
are  tied  vertically  or  obliquely  to  the  top  wire.  In  addition  there  are  left 
two  or  three  spurs,  growing  from  the  upper  side  of  each  arm,  located  at  well 
spaced  intervals  and  preferably  in  proximity  to  the  head. 

One  of  the  chief  faults  of  the  Arm  system  is  the  tendency  of  the  best 
matured,  and  most  desirable,  canes  to  be  developed  at  or  near  the  upper 
wire,  while  those  lower  down  are  often  too  short,  or  so  poorly  matured  as  to 
be  unfitted  for  fruiting  purposes.  When  the  wood,  bearing  the  well-developed 
upper  canes,  is  brought  down  for  arms,  a  considerable  interval  of  the  arm 
from  the  head  to  the  point  where  the  canes  arise  is  without  fruiting  wood. 
Under  such  conditions  the  growth  will  be  again  thrown  to  the  extremities. 
If  spurring  on  the  arms  has  been  practiced,  this  undesirable  condition  is 
eliminated.  With  either  type  of  renewal,  spurring  should  be  practiced.  The 
fruit  from  vines  trained  to  the  arm  system  reaches  its  highest  development 
at  or  near  the  level  of  the  upper  wire,  that  on  the  lower  shoots  is,  as  a 
rule,  quite  inferior.  This,  from  the  fact  that  sap  flow  is  more  vigorous  at 
these  points,  resulting  in  more  and  healthier  leaves.  These  in  turn  influence 
the  fruit  for  the  better. 

In  the  vineyard  of  Concord  given  to  a  test  of  the  various  modes  of  train- 
ing, the  Chautauqua  (Arm  system)  has  .returned  an  average  yield  of  5.7 
tons  annually  for  the  past  four  years. 

With  the  High  Renewal  system  the  trellis  always  includes  three  wires, 
placed  as  has  already  been  described.  At  each  pruning  for  the  first  two 
years  the  vines  are  cut  back  to  two  buds.  However  with  strong  growing 
varieties  like  the  Concord,  Niagara  and  Isabella,  and  under  good  soil  con- 
ditions, the  stem  may  be  formed  the  second  year.  With  moderate  growers 
and  under  average  conditions  the  formation  of  the  stem  is  left  till  the  third 
year.  The  cane  that  is  the  most  direct  and  straightest  as  well  as  the  best 
matured  is  chosen  for  the  purpose.  This  is  carried  to  the  lower  wire  and 
there  firmly  tied.  As  soon  as  the  shoots  have  made  sufficient  growth  they 
are  loosely  tied  to  the  wires  so  that  they  are  kept  away  from  the  tillage 
tools.  The  fourth  year  the  head  of  the  vine  is  formed.  This  should  stand 
a  few  inches  below  the  lower  wire.  Two  canes  that  have  grown  from  the 
stem  near  this  position  are  selected,  and  one  is  tied  to  the  right  and  the 
other  to  the  left  of  the  stem  along  the  lower  wire.  In  the  Keuka  Lake 
District,  the  canes  are  tied  with  willows.  In  addition,  at  least  two  spurs 
of  two  buds  each  are  retained  near  the  head.  With  the  Concord,  the  canes 
may  carry  about  ten  buds  each,  but  with  the  Catawba  as  grown  on  the  hill- 
sides of  the  Central  Lakes  Region  of  New  York,  the  canes  should  not  carry 
above  six  buds  each.  As  the  shoots  develop  from  the  horizontal  canes,  they 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  61 

are  tied  with  rye  straw  to  the  middle  and  upper  wires.  This  summer  tying 
is  almost  continuous  after  the  shoots  are  long  enough  to  reach  the  middle 
wire. 

The  following  year  all  the  wood  is  cut  away  except  two  or  three  canes 
that  have  developed  from  the  basal  buds  of  the  canes  put  up  the  previous 
year,  or  that  have  grown  from  the  spurs.  In  the  event  of  a  third  cane  being 
retained,  it  is  tied  to  the  middle  wire.  Spurs  are  again  maintained  close  to 
the  head  for  renewal  purposes.  The  other  two  canes  are  tied  along  the 
lower  wire  as  before.  If  the  same  spurs  are  used  for  a  few  years  they  so 
lengthen  that  the  canes  arising  from  them  reach  above  the  wire  and  cannot 
be  so  well  managed  in  the  "willowing".  It  is  desirable  to  provide  new  spurs 
annually,  selecting  those  canes  for  the  purpose  that  arise  from  the  head  of 
the  vine  or  near  it.  It  is  possible  by  careful  pruning  to  so  cut  away  the  old 
wood  that,  practically  all  that  remains  after  each  pruning  is  the  stem.  Thus 
the  vine  is  renewed  almost  to  the  ground.  When  the  stem  approaches  the 
end  of  its  usefulness,  a  shoot  is  allowed  to  grow  from  the  ground,  and  the 
old  one  cut  away.  This  system  of  training  is  especially  adapted  to  slow 
growing  varieties,  or  those  situated  on  poor  soils,  where  but  little  wood 
growth  is  made.  It  is  ideally  adapted  for  the  growing  of  Catawba  on  the 
hillsides  of  the  Keuka  Lake  District.  It  is  well  adapted  to  late  maturing 
varieties  that  are  planted  out  of  their  zone.  Concord,  growing  under  average 
conditions,  is  too  vigorous  to  be  trained  to  this  system.  It  makes  a  tremen- 
dous growth  of  wood  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  fruit,  which  is 
inclined  to  be  very  inferior.  The  chief  objection  to  the  system  is  the  amount 
of  summer  tying  involved,  which  comes  at  a  time  when  attention  to  tillage 
should  be  given.  It  might  prove  profitable  in  the  growing  of  dessert  varieties, 
that  have  been  discarded  for  lack  of  vigor  and  which  command  a  fancy 
price.  On  thin  hillside  soils,  the  Catawba  requires  training  modeled  after 
this  system,  but  on  the  heavier  upland  ones,  with  shorter  pruning,  it  can  be 
grown  on  the  Arm  plan.  In  our  test  vineyard,  Concord  trained  to  this  system, 
has  yielded  a  yearly  average  of  four  and  three-tenths  tons  per  acre  during 
the  past  four  years.  Here  we  have  put  up  from  two  to  four  canes  per  vine, 
excepting  in  1911  when  an  average  of  but  two  was  used.  These  canes 
carried  from  six  to  ten  buds.  Those  tied  along  the  lower  wire  having  the 
first  number,  while  the  longer  ones  were  tied  to  the  middle  one. 

So  far  as  the  data  is  now  available,  it  indicates  that  the  Concord  can  be 
successfully  grown,  under  judicious  pruning,  when  trained  to  the  Single-Stem 
Kniffen,  the  Umbrella  Kniffen  or  the  Chautauqua  or  Arm.  The  Kniffen 
systems  possess  several  points  of  superiority  over  the  Arm,  as  has  already 
been  described,  yet  the  fact  remains  that  the  latter,  when  the  vines  are  well 
pruned,  is  proving  a  successful  method. 

Niagara,  Hartford,  Champion,  Clinton,  Diana,  Hernito,  Noah,  Mo.  Ries- 
ling, Agawam,  Lindley,  Herbert,  and  Lucile  can  be  trained  very  satisfactorily 
to  either  of  these  three  systems. 

Catawba,  Delaware,  lona,  Dutchess,  Campbell,  Eumelan,  Jessica,  Ver- 
gennes  and  Regal  are,  as  a  rule,  grown  to  better  advantage  when  trained 
to  the  High  Renewal. 

Other  varieties  of  vigor,  ranging  between  the  two,  of  which  Worden  is 
a  good  example,  should  be  pruned  somewhat  longer  than  the  last  named  group 
and  trained  to  the  High  Renewal. 


62  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Any  system  of  training  to  have  merit  must  be  so  adapted  to  the  variety, 
as  grown  on  the  particular  soil  type,  that  it  will  conserve  the  energies  of  the 
vine  from  year  to  year.  Any  system  can  be  abused  in  the  hands  of  the 
incompetent  pruner. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  FOR  AMERICAN   GRAPES. 

By  F.   E.  GLADWIN. 
Vineyard  Laboratory,  Fredonia,  N.  Y. 


This  paper  presents  the  results  of  six  years'  study  on  the  role  of  com- 
merical  fertilizers  in  grape  growing  for  New  York.  The  data  here  presented 
is  not  to  be  considered  conclusive  but  rather  suggestive  in  pointing  the 
way  towards  a  reasonable  standard  cf  production,  and  at  the  same  time 
maintaining  the  vines  in  good  vigor.  Fertilization  and  manuring  of  vine- 
yards has  been  a  hit  or  miss  operation,  no  well-defined  plan  having  been 
followed  out.  Vineyardists  of  New  York  are  generally  of  the  opinion  that 
stable  manure  or  potash  in  some  form  are  all  important.  Of  the  potassium 
carriers,  Kainit  is  the  most  popular.  Commercial  Nitrogen  and  Phosphorous 
have  generally  been  applied  only  in  factory-mixed  goods  and  these  are 
usually  low  in  quickly  available  Nitrogen. 

No  long  time  fertilizer  experiments  have  been  conducted  with  the  grape 
in  the  United  States  under  commercial  conditions.  The  French  and  Ger- 
mans, however,  have  made  numerous  tests,  yet  because  of  the  dissimilarities 
of  species  and  cultural  practices  they  are  of  little  use  to  American  grape 
growers.  A  few  are  worth  brief  mention.  Sannino2  reports  "that  he  used 
356  pounds  per  acre  of  sulphate  of  potash  and  no  differences  in  wood  growth 
were  to  be  seen  between  the  fertilized  and  the  unfertilized.  At  harvest  time, 
however,  the  fertilized  grapes  were  seen  to  be  a  little  larger  and  sweeter 
than  the  unfertilized."  No  differences  in  the  amounts  of  fruit  are  recorded. 

Stoklasa,  J.,3  reports  the  following  yields  from  .08  acre: 
Plats 

Check  4600  Kg. 

Acid  phosphate,  17  per  cent,  814  pounds  per  acre 

Kainit,  1430  pounds  per  acre 5500  Kg. 

Acid  phosphate,  814  pounds  per  acre 

Ammonium  sulphate,  616  pounds  per  acre 

Kainit,  1430  pounds  per  acre 7100  Kg. 

This  experiment  seems  to  show  that  nitrogen  was  the  limiting  factor. 

Zeissig4  obtained  much  heavier  wood  growth  from  the  use  of  160  pounds 
of  nitrate  of  soda  put  on  in  three  applications  than  from  plats  where  nitrate 
was  omitted.  The  development  of  fruit  and  the  yield  were  most  satisfactory. 
Nitrate  of  soda  was  more  effective  with  some  varieties  than  with  others. 


2  Sannino,  F.  A.  (Revista)  Conegliano. 

3  Stoklasa,  J.    Wiener  Londw.  Ztg.  59.1909.    No.  18,  p.  182. 

4  Zeissig,  Ber.  K.  Lehranst  Wien,  Obst.  u.  Gartenbau,  Geisenheim,  1902, 
pp.  59-64. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  63 

Zacharewicz,  E.5  concluded  that  nitrate  of  soda  associated  with  sulphate 
of  potash  and  superphosphate  of  lime  increased  yields,  hastened  maturity  and 
raised  the  sugar  content  of  the  fruit. 

HollodayG  observed  that  the  only  fertilizer  that  showed  on  the  growth 
of  the  vines  in  a  marked  degree  the  first  season  was  dried  blood.  This  was 
evidenced  also  in  a  brighter,  fresher  green  of  the  foliage.  Potash  showed 
little  if  any  effect. 

Fertilizer  Formulae. 

Most  fertilizer  formulae  for  grapes  have  been  suggested  from  time  to 
time  by  chemists.  Van  Slyke^  recommends  liberal  applications  of  a  fertilizer 
carrying  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  11  per  cent  of 
potash.  Nearly  all  formulae  seem  to  be  based  on  the  amounts  of  the  princi- 
pal elements  removed  in  an  average  crop  of  fruit  and  wood.  Manufacturers 
and  distributors  of  fertilizers  furnish  in  their  advertising,  formulae,  taken 
from  experiments  carried  on  under  their  direction  with  grape-growers  who 
are  not  in  many  cases  competent  to  do  careful  work. 

The   Experimental   Vineyard. 

In  the  spring  of  1909  this  Station  leased  the  30-acre  farm  of  H.  B.  Benja- 
min, Fredonia,  New  York.  The  soil  is  of  three  types  on  the  Benjamin  farm. 
Dunkirk  gravelly  loam,  Dunkirk  silt  loam  and  Dunkirk  clay  loam.  The 
fertilizer  experiment  was  located  on  the  gravelly  loam  as  follows: 

The  Dunkirk  gravelly  loam  is  a  deep  open  soil  quite  inclined  to  leaching. 
It  is  formed  of  alternating  layers  of  varying  degrees  of  fineness.  In  the 
Benjamin  vineyard  it  extends  to  a  depth  of  approximately  20  feet.  It  should 
be  said  that  this  type  of  soil  is  generally  preferred  by  vineyardists  in  the 
Chautauqua  Belt,  not  by  reason  of  superiority  in  its  plant  food  content,  nor 
because  grapes  are  better  grown  on  it,  but  rather  because  it  is  naturally  well 
drained  and  more  easily  worked.  It  consequently  commands  a  higher  price 
per  acre.  In  1909  about  one-third  of  the  entire  acreage  of  the  Chautauqua 
District  was  located  on  Dunkirk  gravelly  loam.  Since  then,  however,  the 
plantings  have  been  largely  on  other  soil  types  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 
practically  all  land  of  this  character  had  been  planted  to  grapes  or  other 
fruits. 

The  Fertilizer  Section. 

A  section  of  approximately  three  acres  was  selected  for  the  tests  of 
commercial  fertilizers.  This  area  is  very  uniform  and  with  a  gentle  slope  to 
the  south.  A  slight  depression  extends  across  the  entire  section  from  east  to 
west.  The  plats  extend  at  right  angles  to  this  depression,  so  that  as  far  as 
topography  is  concerned,  they  are  very  uniform.  The  soil  on  the  north  side 
is  possibly  a  little  lighter  than  elsewhere  in  the  section,  but  the  same  extent 
of  each  plat  overruns  this  variation.  The  rows,  46  in  number,  run  north  and 
south  and  contain  37  vines  per  row.  A  few  scattering  vines  have  died  and 
not  all  are  yet  replaced.  The  age  of  the  vines  in  this  section  is  not  known 
but  they  were  approximately  18  years  old  at  the  time  this  experiment  was 
begun  in  1909.  At  this  time  it  was  a  representative  vineyard  for  this  type 


5  Zacharewicz,  E.  Prog.  Agr.  &  Vit.  (Ed.  1'Est.  1906.) 

6  Holloday,  A.  L.  Virg.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  35. 

7  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.  New  York  Agricultural  Exp.  Station  Bull.  No.  94. 


64 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


100  Ibs.  per  acre. 

800  Ibs.  per  acre. 

300  Ibs.  per  acre. 

200  Ibs.  per  acre. 


of  soil  and  of  like  age,  except  that  the  west  portion  including  about  20  rows 
was  in  poorer  condition  than  the  remainder  of  the  section. 

As  far  as  could  be  learned  no  commercial  fertilizer  nor  stable  manure 
had  been  applied  to  the  vineyard  for  the  last  ten  years  before  the  beginning 
of  this  experiment.  The  tillage  had  been  that  ordinarily  given;  namely, 
spring  plowing,  horse-hoeing,  hand-hoeing  and  cultivation  with  the  spring 
tooth  and  disc  harrows.  Spraying  had  been  done  intermittently. 

This  section  as  shown  in  Figure  1  was  divided  into  11  plats  consisting 
of  three  rows  each,  beginning  on  the  west  side.  The  rows  are  eight  feet  apaH 
and  the  vines  stand  eight  feet  in  the  rows,  making  680  per  acre.  Each  plat 
would  contain  111  vines  if  none  were  missing,  or  approximately  yQ  of  an  acre. 
In  computing  the  results  the  actual  number  of  producing  vines  are  counted. 
Outside  of  a  few  scattering  vines  of  Clinton  and  Catawba  the  vines  are  all 
Concord. 

Treatment  of  Plats. 

Fertilizers  were  applied  as  follows: 
Plat  1. 

Nitrate  of  soda at  the  rate  of 

Cotton  seed  meal at  the  rate  of 

Acid  phosphate at  the  rate  of 

Sulphate  of  potash at  the  rate  of 

Lime  (air  slacked) at  the  rate  of  2000  Ibs.  per  acre. 

Plat  2. 

Plat  2,  separated  by  a  discard  row  from  plat  1,  had  the  same  application 
excepting  that  no  lime  was  used. 
Plat  3. 

Nitrate  of  soda at  the  rate  of 

Cotton  seed  meal at  the  rate  of 

Acid  phosphate at  the  rate  of 

Plat  4. 

Nitrate  of  soda at  the  rate  of 

Cotton  seed  meal at  the  rate  of 

Sulphate  of  potash at  the  rate  of 

Plat  5. 

Sulphate  of  potash at  the  rate  of 

Acid  phosphate at  the  rate  of 

Plat  6. 

Unfertilized. 
Plat  7. 

Duplicate  of  plat  1. 
Plat  8. 

Duplicate  of  plat  2. 
Plat  9. 

Duplicate  of  plat  3. 
Plat  10. 

Duplicate  of  plat  4. 
Plat  11. 

Duplicate  of  plat  5. 

Each  plat  is  separated  from  adjacent  ones  by  discard  rows  not  considered 
in  the  results. 


100  Ibs.  per  acre. 
800  Ibs.  per  acre. 
300  Ibs.  per  acre. 

100  Ibs.  per  acre. 
800  Ibs.  per  acre. 
200  Ibs.  per  acre. 

200  Ibs.  per  acre. 
300  Ibs.  per  acre. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  65 

In  1910,  1911,  1912,  1913  2nd  1914  dried  blood  was  substituted  for  the 
cotton  seed  meal  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  meal.  The  amount 
of  dried  blood  used  in  1910  was  at  the  rate  of  560  pounds  per  acre.  In  1911, 
1912,  1913  and  1914  but  400  pounds  per  acre  were  applied.  The  difference 
was  made  necessary  because  of  the  variability  of  the  nitrogen  content  of  the 
blood  in  1910  and  the  four  years  following. 

The  lime  applications  have  been  made  at  three  year  intervals.  Thus  far 
two  applications  have  been  made,  one  of  air  slacked  lime  and  the  other  an 
equivalent  amount  of  ground  limestone. 

The  fertilizers  were  purchased  in  the  open  market  at  prevailing  prices 
and  were  "home  mixed." 

The  lime  was  broadcasted  and  harrowed  in  after  spring  plowing. 

In  1909  the  cotton  seed  meal  and  nitrate  of  soda  were  mixed  with  the  other 
materials,  broadcasted  and  plowed  under,  but  in  1910,  1911, 1912, 1913  and  1914 
the  dried  blood  and  nitrate  of  soda  were  withheld  from  the  mixtures  and  two 
applications  made  of  them,  one  shortly  after  growth  started  and  the  second 
two  or  three  weeks  later.  In  both  cases  the  nitrogen  was  broadcasted  and 
lightly  harrowred  in.  The  acid  phosphate  and  sulphate  of  potash  were  applied 
early  and  plowed  under. 

Using  these  materials  at  the  rates  just  given  we  applied  in  1909,  72 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  58  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  108  pounds  of  potash 
per  acre.  In  1910,  1911,  1912,  1913  and  1914,  we  applied  56  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
42  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  96  pounds  of  potash. 

Chemical  analysesi  shows  that  about  15  pounds  of  potash  and  8  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid  are  removed  in  producing  a  ton  of  grapes  and  1000  pounds 
of  wood  per  acre,  hence  a  three  ton  crop  would  theoretically  require  approxi- 
mately 50  pounds  of  potash  and  24  pounds  phosphoric  acid.l  If  these  figures 
be  correct  it  will  be  seen  that  the  applications  have  been  sufficient  to  supply 
the  needs  and  still  leave  an  accumulation  in  the  soil.  However,  the  six  year 
average  for  this  section  has  been  over  three  tons  and  the  wood  production 
considerably  greater  than  a  1000  pounds  per  acre,  so  the  accumulation  is  con- 
siderably less  than  the  figures  would  indicate. 

Gauging   Results. 

During  the  first  two  years,  1909  and  1910,  records  were  made  of  the 
fruit  yields  from  the  different  plats,  and  the  general  condition  of  the  vines 
in  them,  as  to  their  vigor,  indicated  by  the  wood  growth  and  the  amount  and 
color  of  the  foliage.  For  the  past  four  years,  1911,  1912,  1913  and  1914,  in 
addition  to  the  above  data,  weights  of  the  pruned  wood,  leaf  weights  (green 
and  dry),  amounts  of  bearing  wood  put  up,  and  fruit  characteristics,  as,  size 
of  clusters,  size  of  berries,  compactness  and  maturity,  were  recorded  for  each 
plat. 

Table  1. 

Yields  in  tons  per  acre  from  the  various  plats  of  the  commercial  fertilizer 
vineyard  for  the  years: 

Treatment.  1909      1910      1911      1912      1913      1914    6-yr.  av. 

Complete  fertilizer,  lime 4.48       2.10       5.37       3.46       2.14       4.90         3.7 

Complete  fertilizer 4.76       2.21       5.71       4.30       2.83       5.20        4.1 

Nitrogen  and  phosphorus 5.17       2.14       5.61       4.00       2.25       4.00         3.8 

Nitrogen  and  potash 4.25       2.55       5.64       4.10       2.85       5.30         4.1 

Phosphorus  and  potash 3.41       2.00       5.44       4.35       1.78       4.00         3.5 

Check   3.38       2.10       5.32       3.60       1.24       2.90         3.1 

Complete  fertilizer,  lime 4.69       2.38       5.62       4.80       3.04       5.10         4.2 

Complete  fertilizer 4.66       2.07       5.71       4.98       2.72       5.80        4.3 

Nitrogen  and  phosphorus 4.99       2.04       5.35       4.89       2.61       4.80         4.1 

Nitrogen  and  potash 4.79       2.26       5.91       4.89       3.07       5.70         4.4 

Phosphorus  and  potash 4.99       1.87       5.03       4.21       1.97       4.50        3.7 


66  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Yield  of  Fruit. 

In  table  I  are  given  the  amounts  of  fruit  borne  the  past  six  years,,  begin- 
ning with  1909.  Records  of  individual  vines  were  not  kept.  The  total  pro- 
duction of  each  plat  was  recorded  and  from  these  the  average  yield  per  vine 
has  been  obtained.  Then  the  yields  have  been  computed  in  tons  per  acre. 
The  table  shows  that  in  1909  the  unfertilized  check  yielded  less  than  any 
plat  in  the  experiment,  ranging  from  three  hundredths  of  a  ton  less  in  one, 
to  one  and  seventy-nine  hundredths  tons  less  in  another  instance.  On  either 
side  of  the  Check  Plat,  the  yields  with  one  exception  are  much  greater  than 
from  the  Check.  The  exception  is  in  the  plat  to  which  no  nitrogen  was 
applied.  No  differences  in  wood  growth  or  in  the  color  of  the  foliage  of  the 
vines  in  the  plats  were  discernible  in  1909. 

During  the  winter  of  1909-1910  approximately  50  per  cent  of  the  buds, 
that  were  to  produce  the  1910  crop  were  killed.  Counts  made  of  injured  buds 
in  the  different  plats  showed  that  the  killing  was  uniform  over  all  and  that 
the  fertilizers  had  not  thus  far  affected  favorably,  hardiness  of  bud.  This 
condition  was  reflected,  as  Table  I  shows,  in  the  uniformity  of  yields  from 
the  several  plats  in  1910.  Not  only  were  the  yields  about  equal  over  the 
entire  section  for  the  year  1910,  but  the  small  crop,  by  not  taxing  the  vines, 
probably  served  also,  to  equalize  the  1911  crop,  which  was  uniformally  high 
as  the  crop  of  1910  was  low.  Thus  the  season  of  1910  may  be  considered  a 
rest  period.  Differences  in  yield  between  the  check  and  fertilized  plats  were 
so  slight  that  they  are  within  the  range  of  experimental  error. 

The  yield  records  for  1912,  however,  show  marked  differences  in  the 
several  plats.  From  them  it  will  be  seen  that  only  one  fertilized  plat,  No.  1, 
to  which  was  applied  complete  fertilizer  and  lime,  fell  below  the  check.  The 
part  of  the  section  that  includes  this  plat,  it  will  be  remembered,  with  some 
adjacent  plats,  were  lacking  in  vigor  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 
Their  poor  condition,  probably,  is  still  reflected  in  the  yields  of  1912. 

The  differences  in  yield  between  the  check  and  other  fertilized  plats 
range  from  four-tenths  of  a  ton,  to  one  and  thirty-eight  hundredths  tons  per 
acre. 

In  1913  the  check  plat  is  without  exception  the  low  producer.  The  differ- 
ences between  it  and  the  fertilized  plats  range  from  fifty-four  hundredths  of 
a  ton  in  the  case  of  plat  5,  phosphorus  and  potash,  to  one  and  eighty-three 
hundredths  tons  with  plat  10,  nitrogen  and  potash.  In  this  year  both  phos- 
phorus and  potash  plats,  which  up  to  1913  have  produced  crops  comparable 
with  any  of  the  others,  gave  the  lowest  yields  of  the  fertilized  plats.  This 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  lack  of  nitrogen  in  these  plats  is  beginning  to  be 
felt. 

Again  in  1914  all  the  fertilized  plats  have  yielded  crops  considerably 
above  the  check.  These  gains  vary  from  1.1  tons  to  2.9  tons  per  acre  over 
the  unfertilized.  With  but  one  exception  the  plats  receiving  Nitrogen  were 
the  high  yielding  ones.  In  this  instance  one  Phosphorus  and  Potassium  plat 
yielded  exactly  the  same  amount  of  fruit  as  its  companion  Nitrogen  and 
Phosphorus  one.  It  would  appear  that  the  lack  of  uniformity  of  the  plats 
on  the  west  side  of  the  section  has  been  somewhat  overcome  by  reason  of 
the  treatment  given. 


1  Van  Slyke,  N.  Y.  Agrl.  Expt.  Station  Bull.  No.  94. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


67 


The  six  year  averages  for  the  plats  indicate  that  all  have  produced  more 
than  ordinary  crops  for  the  period  and  while  the  showing  for  the  check  is 
good,  the  fact  that  it  dropped  behind  in  1912,  1913  and  1914  probably  means 
that  the  fertilizers  are  beginning  to  tell  in  the  fertilized  plats.  We  shall  see 
that  the  fertilized  vines  show  improvement  as  well. 

Fruit  Characteristics. 

No  differences  were  to  be  detected  in  the  fruit  in  1909,  1910  and  1911 
from  the  various  plats.  The  grapes  in  all  respects  compared  very  favorably 
with  those  in  the  average  well-cared-for  vineyard  on  the  same  soil  type.  No 
better,  no  worse.  Nor  were  any  differences  noted  in  its  time  of  maturing. 
But  in  1912  it  began  to  appear  that  the  fruit  from  the  plats  on  which  nitrogen 
had  been  used,  was  superior  in  compactness  of  cluster,  size  of  cluster,  size 
of  berry  and  matured  earlier  than  the  grapes  in  the  check.  The  grapes  in 
the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  plats  while  superior  to  those  in  the  check  in 
these  respects,  were  not  equal  in  quality  of  fruit  to  those  of  the  plats  which 
had  nitrogen.  The  clusters  from  the  check  were  scraggly  and  both  clusters 
and  berries  were  small.  In  1913  these  differences,  with  the  exception  of 
earlier  maturity,  were  even  more  marked.  The  favorable  ripening  season 
and  the  smaller  crop  probably  tended  to  equalize  the  time  of  maturity 
between  the  fertilized  and  the  unfertilized  plats.  In  1912  ripeness  was  an 
important  consideration  and  we  believe  that  the  fertilizers  played  an  import- 
ant part  in  hastening  maturity.  In  1914  the  fruit  from  the  plats  that  received 
Nitrogen  was  superior  to  all  other,  while  that  from  the  phosphorus  and 
potassium  rows  was  considerably  better  than  the  check. 


Table  2. 
Amounts  of  wood  pruned  per  acre  for  each  plat. 


Treatment. 
Complete  fertilizer,  lime  .... 

1911 
Ibs. 
....*1244 

1912 
Ibs. 
1020 
1196 
1156 
1258 
1033 
707 
1162 
1183 
1162 
1203 
1006 
others 

1913 
Ibs. 
1088 
1292 
1088 
1360 
816 
734 
1496 
1400 
1190 
1407 
952 
in  the  fall 

1914     4-yr.  av. 
Ibs.          Ibs. 
1033         1096 
1149         1256 
972         1144 
1217         1299 
972         1011 
761           877 
1278         1417 
1339         1417 
1142         1293 
1258         1397 
938         1096 
of  their  respec- 

Complete  fertilizer 

....*1387 

Nitrogen  and  phosphorus 

....*1360 

Nitrogen  and  potash 

.  *1360 

Phosphorus  and  potash 

*1224 

Check 

....  1305 

Complete  fertilizer,  lime 

1734 

Complete  fertilizer 

1747 

Nitrogen  and  phosphorus 

.  1679 

Nitrogen  and  potash 

1720 

Phosphorus  and  potash 

1489 

*  Weights  taken  in  spring  of 
tive  years. 

1912.    All 

Annual   Wood  Growth. 

There  were  no  indications  either,  in  1909,  1910  and  1911  that  fertilizers 
were  producing  any  increase  in  wood  growth,  apparent  to  the  eye  at  least. 
In  the  fall  of  1911,  as  fast  as  the  plats  were  pruned,  the  wood  was  stripped 
from  the  wires,  forked  out  to  the  end  of  the  rows  and  weighed.  The  weights 
included  the  weights  of  the  canes  put  up  for  the  year  previous  in  each 
instance.  Owing  to  unfavorable  weather  but  seven  plats  were  weighed  at 
this  time.  The  remaining  five  were  weighed  early  in  the  spring  of  1912. 


68  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

These  are  starred  in  Table  2  which  gives  the  results.  It  is  quite  probable 
that  the  wood  from  those  that  were  not  weighed  lost  weight  during  the 
interim  between  pruning  and  weighing,  as  the  weights  taken  for  the  years 
1912-1913  and  1914  do  not  show  the  differences  in  weight  between  the  halves 
of  the  section  shown  in  1911. 

From  the  above  data,  we  conclude  that  commercial  fertilizers  for  grapes 
are  at  this  writing  having  a  marked  effect  upon  wood  growth,  yield  and 
quality.  The  use  the  first  season,  1909,  apparently  had  a  decided  effect  upon 
the  crop  of  that  year,  although  normal  Plat  variations  may  account  for  the 
increased  yields  of  the  fertilized  over  the  unfertilized. 

Bud  injury  during  the  winter  of  1909  and  1910  reduced  the  crop  the 
second  year  50  per  cent.  Both  the  fertilized  and  unfertilized  plats  were 
equally  affected.  The  crop  of  1910  was  fairly  uniform  over  all  the  Plats.  The 
general  light  crop,  no  doubt,  tended  to  equalize  the  yields  for  the  succeeding 
year  1911. 

No  differences  in  the  amount  or  the  color  of  the  foliage  were  apparent 
till  the  summer  of  1912.  Then  the  nitrogen  fertilized  plats  clearly  showed 
superiority  in  these  respects  to  those  on  which  no  nitrogen  was  applied  and 
also  to  the  check.  The  phosphorus-potassium  plats  appeared  superior  to  the 
check. 

The  plats  receiving  the  nitrogen  application  produced  fruit  in  the  years 
1912,  1913  and  1914  somewhat  superior  in  size  of  cluster,  size  of  berry  and 
compactness,  to  the  plats  to  which  phosphorus  and  potassium  had  been 
applied  and  considerably  superior  to  the  check.  The  phosphorus-potassium 
plats  yielded  fruit  better  than  the  check  in  these  respects  and  probably  more 
mature  at  the  time  the  observations  were  made.  The  nitrogen  has  probably 
indirectly  affected  fruit  characters  through  its  action  in  producing  more 
healthy  wood  and  leaf,  as  well  as  greater  amounts. 

It  appears  that  nitrogen  quickly  available  has  been  the  limiting  factor 
with  this  vineyard.  That  two  applications,  one  at  the  time  the  first  three  or 
four  leaves  of  the  shoots  are  out  and  a  second  two  or  three  weeks  later  are 
preferable  to  a  single  application  of  the  total  amount  used  in  the  two.  That 
the  carriers  of  nitrogen  in  this  experiment,  nitrate  of  soda  and  dried  blood, 
on  this  type  of  soil  should  be  broadcasted  and  lightly  harrowed  in  and  the 
phosphorus  and  potassium  applied  before  plowing  somewhat  earlier. 

Thus  far  lime  has  proved  of  no  direct  benefit  in  the  experiment. 

This  experiment  indicates  that  commercial  nitrogen  in  connection  with 
good  tillage  will  restore  a  run-down  vineyard  on  soil  of  a  gravelly  nature. 
That  systematic  applications  are  necessary,  and  immediate  results  are  not  to 
be  expected,  and  that  good  tillage  alone  will  not  accomplish  this. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  69 


PHYLLOXERA   RESISTANT   STOCKS   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

By  F.  C.  H.  FLOSSFEDER, 
Viticulturist,  University  Farm,  Davis,  California. 


When  the  phylloxera  appeared  in  France  and  after  it  had  done  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  damage,  it  was  thought  the  crossing  of  the  non-resistant 
vinifera  varieties  with  resistant  American  species  would  save  the  industry. 
This  was  attempted  and  we  got  what  is  called  the  direct  producer,  of  which 
we  find  a  few  here  and  there,  grown  at  the  present  time.  The  results  ob- 
tained in  this  way  were,  for  several  reasons,  not  satisfactory.  The  grafting 
on  resistant  vines  was  commenced  at  about  the  same  time,  but  this 
also  was  not  accompanied  by  the  results  expected,  because  a  good  many 
stocks  used  at  that  time  were  not  resistant  enough  or  not  suited  to  the  soil 
in  which  they  were  planted.  Very  often  they  were  very  weak  growers,  and, 
as  the  years  passed  by,  the  field  grafted  vines  were  pulled  up,  because  they 
proved  to  be  unsatisfactory  in  several  ways,  and  experimenters  narrowed 
down  their  very  large  collections  of  species,  varieties  and  hybrids  of  Vitis 
to  the  comparatively  small  number  of  stocks  used  at  the  present  time.  After 
long  years  of  hard  and  systematic  work,  it  may  be  said,  that  at  the  present 
time  there  is  in  France  a  resistant  stock  suited  to  almost  every  kind  of  soil. 

Here  in  California,  things  are  somewhat  different.  Grape  growing  in 
this  country  is  comparatively  new,  the  phylloxera  appeared  much  later  and 
climatic  conditions  here  do  not  allow  the  phylloxera  to  destroy  the  vineyards 
so  quickly  as  in  Europe.  There  are  Muscat  vineyards  here,  which  are  known 
to  have  been  infested  with  the  insect  for  fifteen  years,  but  are  still  in  exist- 
ence and  giving  good  crops. 

To  a  certain  extent,  we  do  benefit  by  the  experiences  gained  in  Europe. 
However,  very  often  it  happens  that  a  given  stock,  which  does  well  in  France, 
seems  to  give  no  good  results  under  about  the  same  conditions  in  California. 

As  no  systematic  work  had  been  done  along  this  line  of  investigation, 
Prof.  F.  T.  Bioletti,  of  the  Division  of  Viticulture,  College  of  Agriculture. 
University  of  California,  in  the  soring  of  1910  commenced  a  series  of  bench 
graftings  to  supply  material  for  the  stock  testing  of  blocks  "B"  and  "F"  of 
the  Davis,  and  "A"  and  "B"  of  the  Kearney  Experiment  vineyards.  Of  the 
9,750  bench  grafts  made,  5,612  or  57.55  per  cent  grew.  The  variation  in 
percentage  of  the  various  combinations  which  gave  successful  unions  and  of 
their  vigor,  was  very  great  and  indicates,  first,  suitability  of  these  combina- 
tions; secondly,  the  general  suitability  of  each  stock  for  nursery  work; 
thirdly,  the  general  ease  of  grafting  for  each  scion. 

During  the  summer  of  1910  these  bench  grafted  grape  vines  received 
ordinary  nursery  care.  They  were  dug  up  in  the  fall,  and  planted  in  March, 
1911,  in  the  field  with  the  unions  an  inch  above  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

During  the  summer  of  1911  they  were  watered  twice;  the  soil  was  well 
cultivated  in  order  to  give  them  a  good  start,  which  they  made.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1911,  we  had  a  very  bad  early  frost,  and  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  vines 
were  still  growing,  they  froze  down  to  the  ground  and,  in  some  few  instances, 
even  below  the  union,  rendering  the  plants  useless. 


70  asn.nnoiLLiA  £0  ssaaONOO 

The  results  are  summarized  in  the  accompanying  tables: 

Table  A  shows  the  percentage  of  successful  unions  of  the  various  com- 
binations, the  average  number  of  pounds  per  vine  of  the  first  crop,  the  Balling 
per  cent  and  total  acidity  of  the  juice  and  the  relation  between  the  diameter 
of  the  stock  and  scion  in  June,  1915,  of  all  vines  three  and  four  years  old. 

The  percentage  of  successful  unions  depends  upon  various  factors. 
Among  the  principal  are:  A,  specific  vigor  of  scion  and  stock,  especially  of 
the  former;  B,  the  ease  of  rooting  of  the  stock;  and  C,  the  specific  capacity 
of  each  variety  of  stock  and  scion  to  form  uniting  tissues.  These  factors 
may  be  modified  by  the  condition  of  the  cuttings  and  by  the  health  and  vigor 
of  the  vines  from  which  they  are  made.  Where  the  latter  are  defective,  the 
results  may  be  bad  through  no  defect  of  the  varieties  nor  of  the  combinations. 
A  single  failure  must,  therefore,  be  considered  as  negative  and  inconclusive. 
Many  failures  of  a  stock  or  of  a  scion  when  grafted  with  different  varieties 
give  strong  evidence  of  unsuitability.  Successful  results  are  of  more  im- 
portance and  a  single  good  result  may  be  considered  as  proof  of  the  suit- 
ability of  the  varieties  and  combinations. 

These  results  indicate  the  relative  ease  of  grafting  and  the  vigor  of  the 
nursery  vines.  They  give  no  assurance  of  the  behavior  of  the  vine  in  the 
vineyard,  of  their  fruitfulness  nor  of  their  longevity.  A  vine  which  grows 
well  in  the  nursery,  however,  is  likely  to  do  well  in  the  vineyard,  if  the 
conditions  are  suitable. 

Nurserymen  consider  60  per  cent  of  first-class  unions  as  very  satisfac- 
tory, and  anything  under  40  per  cent  as  unprofitable.  The  average  in  practice 
will  be  somewhere  near  50  per  cent.  Any  of  the  combinations  in  Table  "A" 
which  show  a  percentage  of  not  less  than  60  per  cent  may  be  considered 
worth  trying  and  fairly  sure  to  give  good  results  if  the  soil  where  the  vines 
are  planted  is  suitable  to  the  stock  chosen. 

This  table  gives  an  idea  of  the  relative  ease  with  which  some  of  our 
commonest  varieties  can  be  grafted.  Valdepens,  Sultana  and  Petite  Sirah 
gave  50  per  cent  or  over  on  all  stocks,  with  the  exception  of  Berlandieri 
hybrids.  Some  gave  very  high  percentages  on  some  stocks  and  low  on  others, 
such  as  the  Gros  Mansenc  with  95  per  cent  on  Riparia  gloire  and  only  23 
per  cent  on  Rip.  X  Rup.  3309;  or  the  Sultanina  with  85  per  cent  on  3309 
and  only  23  per  cent  on  Riparia  gloire.  Such  cases  as  the  latter  are  partic- 
ularly valuable,  as  the  scion  and  stock  cuttings  were  the  same  in  both  cases 
and  the  differences  can  be  safely  ascribed  to  specific  peculiarities  of  the 
varieties.  The  excellence  of  the  Valdepefias  as  a  grafting  scion  is  shown 
by  the  high  percentage  of  successful  unions  on  Berlandieri  hybrids,  65  per  cent 
on  41B  and  60  per  cent  on  420A. 

Similar  information  is  given  regarding  the  various  stocks.  The  high 
percentage  of  successful  unions  with  the  St.  George  and  their  great  vigor 
explains  the  preference  of  nurserymen  for  this  stock.  The  low  percentage 
of  the  Berlandieri  hybrids  41B  and  420A,  and  their  relative  lack  of  vigor  do 
not  attract  the  nurserymen,  but  European  experience  has  shown  that  the 
vines  become  vigorous  as  they  become  older  and  have  valuable  qualities 
of  fruitfulness,  longevity  and  adaptability  to  unfavorable  conditions. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 

A.     Table  to   Indicate   Relative  Suitability  of  Various   Grafting. 
Combinations. 


71 


4 
11 
16 
20 
8 
10 
7 

7 

9 
5 

8 

14 
13 
10 

21 
8 
12 

9 

12 

6 
5 
6 

4 
5 
3 
5 
5 
5 
3 

8 
6 
3 
9 
9 
4 
7 
5 
4 

10 

7 

a 

12 
5 
13 
6 

11 
7 
5 
10 
9 
9 
9 
8 

Scion                      Stock 

Beba      41   B  

Nursery 
% 

....17 

Crop 
Lbs. 

Bal. 

Acid 

Stem 
mm. 

42 
46 
36 
45 
50 
49 
47 

43 
38 
32 
38 
45 
33 
42 

38 
38 
33 

31 
36 

38 
35 
44 
43 
44 
46 
49 
43 
46 
61 

40 
41 
39 
36 
39 
43 
46 
37 
51 

28 
25 
31 
26 
29 
38 
24 

32 
30 
33 
30 
35 
26 
32 
31 

Stock 
mm, 

38 
40 
29 
36 
38 
37 
32 

35 
30 
23 
28 
34 
22 
29 

38 
37 
31 

30 
29 

37 
33 
40 
38 
39 
40 
42 
36 
36 
44 

42 
39 
36 
32 
34 
37 
37 
28 
39 

29 
26 
31 
25 
26 
34 
20 

34 
31 
32 
29 
33 
23 
26 
25 

Relative 
Diameter 
of  Stock 
% 
90.4 
86.9 
80.5 
80. 
76. 
75.5 
68.1 

81.4 
78.9 
71.9 
73.6 
75.5 
66.6 
69. 

100. 
97.3 
93.9 

96.8 
80.5 

97.3 
94.3 
90.9 

88.3 
88.6 
86.9 
85.7 
83.7 
78.2 
72.1 

105. 
95. 
92.3 
88.8 
87.1 
86. 
80.4 
75.6 
76.4 

103.5 
104. 
100. 
96.1 
89.6 
89.4 
83.3 

106.2 
103.3 
96.9 
96.6 
94.3 
88.4 
81.2 
80.6 

'                     Lsnoir 

25 

'                     R    Gloire 

55 

'                     St     George 

....80 
..38 

'                       1202         .  .  . 

.3309       .     ... 

...45 

.3306 

....22 

.88 
.80 
.62 
.56 
.72 
.62 
.80 

.79 

.97 
.97 

Bouschet,  Al.  H.,  41  B  
St.    George.. 
3309 

....50 
....75 
..50 

10.82 
7.91 
14.20 
7.79 
15.75 
8.98 
12.86 

24.72 
25.26 
25.06 
25.72 
24.92 
25.69 
24.36 

30.34 

21.46 
21.46 

'              3306           .  . 

....37 

1202  

....63 

R.  Gloire  

....45 

4              420   A  

....45 

Corinth   Blk  41   B 

48 

"     St.    George  65       
"    R.  Gloire  61 

Corinth,  Wh..St.  George  61       

"     3306  

....53 



Cornichon  1202  
"          .    R    Gloire 

....45 
35 

"               St    George 

45 

..A  x  R  No.  9    -45 

3309 

...35 

"               R    Martin 

....40 
...25 

41    B         ..    . 

101-14  

....30 

— 

3306  1 

....35 

A  x  R  No.  1 

....15 

Emperor          1202 

50 

"               Lenoir 

35 

420   A 

15 

"               St.  George 

65 

"       .  .     R.   Martin 

55 

3306  

35 

3309  

....65 

.... 

R.  Gloire  .  . 

...65 

A  x  R  No.  1 

.45 

G.  Mansenc...  Lenoir  

....56 

.67 
1.33 
1.92 
1.18 
3.15 
4.37 
1.44 

4.33 
.54 
2.20 
2.50 
3.31 
2.59 
3.06 
1.56 

28.20 
28.86 
27.70 
27.10 
28.90 
28.00 
30.11 

27.50 
26.76 
29.00 
28.10 
25.25 
28.16 
28.40 
28.70 

.84 
.77 
.96 
.89 
.83 
.87 
.71 

.63 
.75 
.63 
.64 
.67 
.57 
.66 
.64 

St.  George... 
41   B  

....50 
....42 

420   A 

35 

'         3309 

23 

'         1202       .      . 

45 

R.  Gloire      . 

95 

Lagrain  1202  
'                  Lenoir 

....65 
27 

St.  George.. 
420  A 

....70 
40 

41    B  
R.  Gloire 

....30 
42 

3309  

....60 

3306  

....62 

72 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


10 
12 

Nursery 
Scion                     Stock                       % 

Malaga  1202..  30 
"                 Lenoir  30 

Crop 
Lbs. 

11.45 
8.63 

Bal. 

24.85 
23.15 

Acid 

.67 

.75 

Stem 
mm. 

46 
44 

Stock 
mm. 

44 

42 

Relative 
Diameter 
of  Stock 

95.6 
95.4 

ii 

"             ....St.  George  42 

4.46 

24.65 

.59 

44 

40 

90.9 

Q 

"                  420   A                 15 

13  16 

24  65 

58 

45 

40 

88  8 

2 

41    B  5 

22.00 

25.03 

.66 

48 

42 

87.5 

5 

11 

"       3309  27 
3306                    40 

21.20 

7  25 

24.55 
24  85 

.61 
65 

52 
49 

42 
36 

80.8 
73  4 

7 
1° 

"       R.  Gloire  27 
Muscat  41   B  32 

12.71 
663 

24.55 
2746 

.66 

.62 

43 

42 

30 

44 

69.8 
104  7 

6 

"       Lenoir  48 

6.42 

28.46 

52 

40 

36 

90 

3 

1202  56 

7.17 

30.17 

.52 

45 

39 

86  6 

5 
12 

A  x  R  No.  9—65 
420    A  33 

4.30 
8.04 

30.18 
29  16 

.52 
.55 

42 
40 

36 
33 

85.7 
82  5 

J3  CO  tO 

A  x  R  No.  1—54 
"        3309  70 
"                  101-14                 69 

9.38 
7.39 

6  68 

29.06 
30.07 

30  78 

.52 
.56 
66 

40 
38 
39 

33 

30 

27 

82.5 
78.9 
69  2 

13 

9 

3306  64 

"                  157-11                 10 

6.88 
4  13 

31.69 
30  18 

.62 
55 

43 
40 

30 
23 

69.8 

57  5 

10 
g 

Palomino  1202  65 

"                 R    Gloire          50 

6.45 

4  41 

26.66 
27  06 

.40 
34 

37 

40 

39 
37 

105.4 
92  5 

7 
13 

4 

41    B  22 
St.  George  72 
420   A  15 

10.43 
6.81 
9.94 

27.46 
27.86 
26  86 

.37 

.38 
40 

43 
41 
43 

38 
36 
3fi 

88.3 
87.8 
83  7 

11 
12 

12 

3309  50 
3306  40 

Semillon  420  A      .           75 

10.45 
8.19 

4.48 

28.26 
28.66 

29  47 

.30 
.37 

69 

45 
47 

37 

Tf  CO  if 

co  co  a 

75.5 
70.2 

94  6 

3 

1202  23 

467 

28  67 

62 

40 

36 

90 

10 

"       St.  George        47 

4.70 

30.41 

45 

38 

32 

84  2 

7 

3306  35 

8  32 

29  67 

62 

42 

35 

83  3 

11 

3309  75 

9.83 

29.37 

67 

41 

32 

78 

11 

R.  Gloire  50 

5.82 

30  07 

59 

35 

26 

74  3 

15 
12 

Sirah  Petite..St.  George  65 
420  A           .     35 

4.15 

5.85 

29.26 
27  26 

.60 
60 

32 
35 

33 
35 

103.1 
100 

9 

1202  78 

13.92 

28  02 

63 

38 

36 

94  7 

8 

41    B  20 

14.16 

27  86 

60 

40 

37 

92  5 

21 

R.  Gloire  60 

10.27 

28.26 

53 

35 

31 

88  5 

11 

3306  70 

10.32 

2866 

.56 

38 

32 

84  2 

12 

3309                    68 

7  81 

28  66 

56 

35 

27 

77  1 

11 
17 

St.  Macaire...41   B  55 

1202                     75 

5.18 
4  47 

24.69 
24  89 

.91 
85 

28 
30 

31 

QO 

110.7 
106  6 

7 

420   A                 22 

4  86 

25  10 

96 

30 

Qn 

100 

10 
6 

St.  George  67 
3309  48 

1.53 
383 

25.90 
27  20 

.79 
66 

29 

28 

28 
27 

96.5 
96  4 

18 

R.  Gloire     ..     77 

5.20 

26  60 

77 

26 

23 

88  4 

6 

''        3306  70 

2  92 

25  29 

90 

30 

25 

83  3 

17 
6 

Sultana  41   B  49 
420   A  38 

39 
37 

42 
37 

107.7 
100 

11 

"                  1202                    73 

34 

34 

100 

7 

"       St.  George  70 

35 

34 

97  1 

11 

101-14                 65' 

34 

31 

91  2 

11 

"                 R    Gloire           66 

29 

24 

82  7 

12 

3306                    55 

40 

33 

82  5 

11 

....A  x  R  No.  1....78 

44 

36 

81.8 

REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


Scion 


Stock 


Nursery     Crop 
%         Lbs. 


Bal. 


Relative 

Stem     Stock      Diameter 
Acid      mm.       mm.        of  Stock 


s 

8 
8 
4 
12 
12 
11 
11 
12 

ultanina  3309  

...85        .... 

"      R    Martin 

80 

37 

30 
37 
27 
32 
30 
35 
35 
33 

87.1 
80.4 
75. 
76.2 
73.2 
74.5 
63.6 
62.3 

420   A 

46 

"      R.  Gloire 

.23 

36 

"      St.  George 

.65 

42 

101-14  

.46 

41 

"       1202  
"       3306  
....A  x  R  No.  1. 

...46        
...47        
...53 

47 
55 
53 

9 
2 
6 

8 
17 

9 


Tokay  .............  420  A 


.27 


St.  George 50 

Lenoir 37 

41  B 22 

3306 42 

3309 60 

R.  Gloire 55 


15.63 

7.09 

7.38 

16.46 

10.94 

14.56 

11.67 


44 
38 
44 
44 
44 
44 
36 


43 
37 
42 
41 
36 
35 
28 


97.7 
94.4 
95.4 
93.2 
81.8 
79.5 
77.7 


4  Valdepenas....420  A 60   10.25   26.90   .56   35   32 


14 
14 
10 
15 
9 
14 
18 


91.4 

....St.  George 75  8.35  28.86  .46  35  32  91.4 

....1202 65  8.63  26.70  .55  40  36  90. 

....Lenoir  82  5.15  28.66  .43  39  34  87.1 

-.3309 88  8.14  28.30  .51  39  32  82.1 

....41  B 65  5.78  27.06  .58  37  30  81.1 

....R.  Gloire 75  11.54  28.16  .57  35  28  80. 

....3306 65  8.71  28.60  .51  39  31  79.5 


Table  B  summarizes  the  information  of  -Table  A,  regarding  the  best 
stocks  for  each  variety,  and  Table  C  the  worst  stocks.  In  chosing  a  stock 
for  any  of  the  varieties  mentioned  in  Table  B  it  would  be  safe  to  take 
any  of  the  three  given,  preferably  that  most  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate. 
The  comparative  failure  shown  in  Table  C  is  less  definite,  but  makes  it 
advisable  to  avoid  these  combinations. 


B.     The  Three  Stocks  Giving   Best  Nursery   Results  with    Each  Scion. 


Beba Rip.  gloire 55 

Bouschet,  Ali Lenoir 

Corinth,  Black St.  George 65 

Corinth,   White 3306 53 

Cornichon,  Black..St.  George 45 

Emperor St.  George 65 

Lagrain .St.  George 70 

Malaga St.  George 42 

Mansenc,  gros Rip.  gloire 95 

Muscat 3309 70 

Palomino St.  George 72 

St.  Macaire Rip.  gloire 77 

Semillon 3309 75 

Sirah,  petite 1202 78 

Sultana A  x  R  No.  1 78 

Sultanina 3309 85 

Tokay,    flame Rip.  gloire 55 

Valdepenas 3309 88 


3309 45 

St.  George 75 

Rip.  gloire 61 

St.  George 50 

A  x  R  No.  9 45 

3309 65 

1202 65 

3306 40 

Lenoir  56 

101-14 70 

1202 65 

1202 75 

Lenoir  60 

3306 70 

1202 73 

R.   Martin 80 

St.  George 50 

Lenoir  ..          ....82 


1202 38 

1202 63 

41  B 48 

Rip.  gloire 41 

R.   Martin 40 

Rip.  gloire 65 

3306 62 

1202 30 

St.  George 50 

A  x  R  No.  9 65 

Rip.  gloire 50 

3306 70 

Rip.  gloire 50 

3309 68 

St.  George 70 

St.  George 65 

3306 42 

Rip.  gloire 75 


74  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

In  this  list  of  best  stocks 

St.   George  occurs 13  times  Lenoir  occurs 4    times 

Rip.  gloire         "      10       "  Rup.  Martin      "      2 

1202  "      8       "  AXR  No.  9        "      2       " 

3309  "      7       "  AXR  No.  1        "      1       " 

3306  "      6  41  B  1 

C.     Stocks  Which   Have  Given  Worst  Nursery   Results  with   Each   Scion 
(Omitting   Berlandieri  and   Its   Hybrids). 

%                                      %  % 

Beba 3306 22  Lenoir  25       1202 38 

Bouschet,  All 3306 37  Rip.  gloire 45      3309 50 

Corinth,  Black 3306 30  —      — 

Corinth,  White Rip.  gloire 41  —      — 

Cornichon,  Black..Lenoir  0  A  x  R  No.  1 15      101-14 30 

Emperor 101-14 30  Lenoir  35      3306 35 

Lagrain .Lenoir  27  Rip.  gloire 42      — 

Malaga Rip.  gloire 27  3309 27      Lenoir  30 

Mansenc,   gros 3309 23  3306 35       1202 45 

Muscat Lenoir  48  —      — 

Palomino Lenoir  7  3306 40       — 

St.  Macaire Lenoir  37  3309 48       — 

Semillon 1202 23  3306 35      St.  George 47 

Sirah,  petite Lenoir  50  — — 

Sultana 3306 55  —      — 

Sultanina Rip.  gloire 23  1202 46      101-14 46 

Tokay,    flame Lenoir  37  1202 38       3306 42 

Valdepenas 3306 65 — — 

In  this  list  of  worst  stocks 

Lenoir    occurs 10  times  3309  occurs 4  times 

3306  "     10       "  101-14  " 3       " 

1202  "     5       "  AXR  No.  1     "     1       " 

Rip.  gloire  "     5      "  St.  George     "     1 

Table  D  giving  a  summary  of  columns  4,  5  and  6  of  Table  A,  enables 
us  to  compare  the  influence  of  the  various  stocks  and  scions  on  bearing. 
Several  interesting  tendencies  may  be  observed: 

1.  Rip.  x  Rup.  3309  produced  the  largest  crop,  80  per  cent  more  than 
the  St.  George,  our  most  commonly  used  stock.     Lenoir  was  no  better  than 
St.  George.     The  soil  of  the  vineyard  is  a  deep,  rich  loam  with  sufficient 
moisture  and  suitable  for  all  the  stocks  tested.    As  this  is  the  first  crop,  the 
small  crop  of  the  St.  George  may  simply  indicate  greater  slowness  in  reach- 
ing full  bearing.    The  Mourvedre  x  Rup.  1202,  however,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  this  defect,  did  much  better. 

2.  There  was  little  difference  in  the  time  of  ripening  or  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  grapes  on  the  various  stocks. 

3.  All  varieties  showed  earlier  ripening  and  more  sugar  when  grafted 
than  when  growing  on  their  own  roots,  wherever  the  comparison  could  be 
made.    On  the  average,  the  increase  of  sugar  was  over  20  per  cent.    With  the 
Muscat,  it  amounted  to  over  36  per  cent,  which  would  represent  a  consider- 
able increase  of  crop  of  raisins,  if  the  weight  of  the  fresh  grapes  was  the 
same. 

D.     Summary  of  Crop  and  Composition  of  Grapes  on  Grafted  Vines. 
Blocks  "E"  and  "F"  Davis. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


75 


Comparison   of  Stocks   With   All   Scions.     Crop   Gathered   and   Weighed 

October  1,  1914. 

Average  Average  Average 

Stock—  Crop  Bal°  Acidity 

Rip.  X  Rup.  3309 9.57  27.45  .59 

Mour.  X  Rup.  1202 8.35  27.03  .64 

Rip.  gloire  7.73  27.47  .58 

Rip.  X  Rup.  3306 7.60  27.79  .58 

Rip.  X  Berl.  420  A 6.89  26.32  .64 

Chass.  X  Berl.  41  B 6.78  25.74  .66 

Lenoir  5.38  26.51  .63 

Rup.  St.  George  5.25  27.72  .58 

Comparison  of  Scions  with  All  Stocks. 

Average 
Scion —  Crop 

Malaga  12.61 

Tokay    11.96 

Ali.  H.   Bouschet 11.19 

Petite  Sirah  9.35 

Valdepenas  8.32 

Palomino  8.10 

Semillon  6.30 

Muscat 6.27 

St.  Macaire  4.00 

Gros  Mansenc  2.87 

Lagrain  2.51 

Sultana  

Sultanina  

Average  of  grafted  and  

ungrafted  varieties 27.93  .62 


Average 

Average 

Averag 

Bal° 

Acidity 

Bar 

24.54 

.65 

23.34 

.57 

24.39 

.76 

28.13 

.59 

27.91 

.52 

27.55 

.37 

22!6s 

29.61 

.61 

27.40 

29.81 

.57 

21.83 

25.64 

.83 

20.21 

28.27 

.84 

20.34 

27.73 

.74 

26.44 

.63 

24"61 

28.16 

.49 

25.79 

Ungrafted 

Average 
Acidity 


23.17 


.60 
.49 
.75 
.97 
.90 

.72 

.47 

.70 


Size   of  Stock,   Scion   and    Union   of  All    Grafted   Vines. 
Measurements  made  June  16-23,  1915. 

It  is  for  practical  reasons  of  great  importance  to  have  grafted  vines  with 
a  stock  as  large  and,  if  possible,  larger  than  the  stem  or  scion  in  order  to 
dispense  with  the  grape  stake  as  early  as  possible.  However,  as  a  rule,  we 
find  that  the  stock  in  most  cases  is  the  weaker  grower  of  the  two;  only  in  a 
few  cases  have  we  been  able  to  observe  that  a  stock  and  a  stem  of  the 
vine  were  of  the  same  diameter.  Measurements  were  taken  on  1201  grafted 
vines.  Every  vine  was  measured  at  three  levels.  With  vines,  which  were 
irregular  in  shape,  several  measurements  were  made  to  obtain  average 
dimensions.  The  first  measurement  at  the  largest  diameter  of  the  swelling, 
and  the  third  measurement  two  or  three  cc.  below  the  union.  The  measure- 
ments are  shown  in  Table  A,  expressed  in  millimeters.  The  last  column 
gives  the  diameter  of  the  stock  in  percentage  of  diameter  of  the  scion. 

The  1201  vines  measured  represent  130  combinations  consisting  of  18 
vinifera  scion  varieties  and  10  resistant  stocks.  The  average  for  all  was  as 
follows. 

Average  diameter  of  all  stems  above  union 39  m/m 

Average  diameter  of  all  stems  below  union 33  m/m 

Average  ratio  scion,  stock 84.6% 

Average  diameter  of  all  unions 56  m/m 

Vines  where  the  stock  is  smaller  than  the  scion  have  the  disadvantage 
that  they  require  permanent  stakes.  An  ideal  vine  would  be  one  which,  while 
making  a  good,  strong  and  healthy  growth  every  year,  ripens  its  canes  well, 
giving  a  good  average  crop  of  grapes  every  year  and  forms  a  stock  strong 


76 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


Enlarge- 

Differences   Ratio 

Stem 

ment 

Stock 

in  Diam. 

Stocks: 

m/m 

m/m 

m/m 

m/m 

Scion,  °, 

39. 

57.1 

36.6 

2.4 

93.8 

39.9 

55.9 

37.2 

2.7 

93.2 

36.7 

53.2 

33.3 

3.4 

90.7 

40. 

58. 

36.6 

3.4 

91.5 

37.6 

55.7 

33.9 

3.7 

90.1 

42.5 

65.5 

37. 

5.5 

87. 

40.6 

55.6 

34.6 

6. 

85.2 

33.6 

47.5 

27.5 

6.1 

81.8 

39.5 

58.1 

31.9 

7.6 

80.7 

39.2 

57.7 

30.5 

8.7 

77.8 

41.6 

59.7 

31.9 

9.7 

76.7 

49.8 

70.4 

37. 

12.8 

74.3 

40. 

56. 

23. 

17. 

57.5 

enough  to  support  the  above-ground  portions  of  the  plant;  thus  eliminating 
the  expense  for  stakes,  labor  and  tying  material. 

Table  Showing  Average  Differences  in  Diameters  of  Stocks  with  All  Scions. 

Name  of        No.  of 
No.  Stock  Scions 

1.  Lenoir  8 

2.  Chass.  x  Berl.41B....14 

3.  Rup.  St.  George 17 

4.  Mour.  x  Rup.  1202....15 

5.  Rip.  x  Berl.  420A 13 

6.  A  x  R  G  No.  9 2 

7.  R.  Martin  3 

8.  R.  Gloire  16 

9.  Rip.  x  Rup.  3309 14 

10.  Rip.  x  Rup.  101-14....  4 

11.  Rip.  x  Rup.  3306 16 

12.  A  x  R  G  No.  1 5 

13.  Rip.  x  Berl.  157-11....  1 

Summary. 

Do  the  above  facts  and  figures  place  us  in  a  position  to  recommend  the 
grafting  of  certain  vinifera  grapes  on  certain  resistant  stocks?  No.  How- 
ever, we  have  found  Mourvedre  x  Rup.  1202,  Riparia  x  Rupestris  3309,  Ber- 
landieri  x  Riparia  420,  and  Chass.  x  Berlandieri  41  B  have  given  very  satis- 
factory results.  Rupestris  St.  George,  the  most  common  stock  in  California, 
makes  a  good  growth  but  the  crop  is  deficient  in  quantity,  and  whether  this 
bad  peculiarity  will  disappear  in  time  we  are  not  prepared  to  say.  The 
Lenoir  shows  the  least  lack  of  affinity  with  the  scions,  grafted  on  to  it, 
but  its  low  resistance  to  phylloxera  and  the  inferior  bearing  of  its  grafts 
make  it  useless  as  a  resistant  stock. 

The  vines  from  which  the  above  data  have  been  obtained,  are  nearly  all 
four  years  old.  We  have  been  able  to  weigh,  test  for  sugar  and  acidity  but 
one  crop.  We  do  not  know  whether  the  crop  of  certain  varieties  of  grapes 
on  certain  stocks  will  increase  or  decrease  in  the  future,  nor  do  we  know 
whether  the  lack  of  affinity  between  the  stock  and  scion  which  always  exists 
to  a  more  or  less  degree,  as  evidenced  by  the  differences  of  diameters  in  the 
stocks  and  scions,  will  increase  or  decrease  when  the  vines  get  older.  All 
these  are  questions  which  can  be  answered  in  the  future  only.  The  "perfect" 
phylloxera  resistant  stock  which  is  satisfactory  in  every  way,  has  thus  far 
not  been  produced.  However,  we  hope  in  time  to  be  able  to  find  a  suitable 
stock  for  every  commercial  vinifera  variety  grown  in  California  and  every 
soil  condition. 


The  observations  of  Prof.  Flossfeder  to  the  effect  that  after  making 
practical  testrr  it  was  found  that  the  crop  produced  by  varieties  grafted  on 
Rupestris  St.  George  showed  less  tonnage  brought  about  an  interesting  discus- 
sion and  the  experience  of  many  growers  was  given,  and  showed  the  value 
of  the  work  of  the  Viticultural  Department  of  the  State  of  California  and  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Mr.  Louis  Kunde,  of  Glen 
Ellen,  California,  Mr.  Swett,  of  Martinez,  Mr.  Sheehan,  of  Sacramento,  Prof. 
Husmann,  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  Mr.  C.  J.  Wetmore,  of  San  Francisco,  Mr. 
P.  F.  Goodwin,  of  Healdsburg,  California,  Prof.  Bioletti,  of  the  University  of 
California,  and  others  took  part  in  the  discussion. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  77 

VITIS  VINIFERA  IN  EASTERN  AMERICA. 

By  U.  P.  HEDRICK, 
Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

I  need  only  remind  this  audience  of  the  many  efforts  to  grow  European 
grapes  in  America.  The  various  attempts,  some  involving  individuals,  others 
corporations  and  in  early  days  even  colonies,  form  some  of  the  most  in- 
structive and  dramatic  episodes  in  the  history  of  American  agriculture.  All 
endeavors,  it  will  be  remembered,  were  failures,  so  dismally  and  pathetically 
complete,  that  we  are  wont  to  think  of  the  200  years  from  the  first  settlement 
in  America  to  the  introduction  of  the  Isabella,  a  native,  as  time  wasted  in 
futile  culture  of  a  foreign  fruit.  The  early  efforts  were  far  from  wasted,  how- 
ever, for  out  of  the  tribulations  of  two  centuries  of  grape-growing  came  the 
domestication  of  our  native  grapes,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  one  of 
the  noblest  achievements  of  agriculture.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  we  may  find 
that  the  failures  of  the  fathers  of  American  viticulture  are  the  foundations 
for  the  success  of  the  sons. 

The  advent  of  Isabella  and  Catawba  wholly  turned  the  thoughts  of  vine- 
yardists  from  Old  World  to  New  World  grapes.  So  completely,  indeed,  were 
viticulturists  won  by  the  thousand  and  more  native  grapes  that  came  trooping 
in  that  for  the  century  which  followed  no  one  has  planted  Old  World  grapes 
east  of  the  Rockies,  while  vineyards  of  native  species  may  be  found  north 
and  south  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

Meanwhile,  much  new  knowledge  has  come  to  agriculture,  old  fallacies 
have  had  many  hard  knocks  and  chains  of  tradition  in  which  the  culture 
of  plants  was  bound,  have  been  broken.  In  no  field  of  agriculture  have 
workers  received  greater  aid  from  science  than  in  viticulture.7  Particularly 
this  is  true  of  the  diseases  of  the  vine.  The  reports  of  the  old  experimenters 
were  much  the  same,  "a  sickness  takes  hold  of  the  vines  and  they  die."  What 
the  sickness  was  and  whether  there  were  preventives  or  remedies  no  one 
knew  a  hundred  years  ago.  But  we  have  learned  something  about  the  ills 
grape  flesh  is  heir  to,  with  preventives  and  remedies  for  the  same.  We 
know  that  the  early  wine  growers  failed  in  part,  at  least,  because  they  fol- 
lowed empirical  European  practices.  Is  it  npt  possible  that  in  the  last  hun- 
dred years  we  have  advanced  sufficiently  in  our  knowledge  of  plants,  soils, 
insects,  and  fungi,  and  that  by  breakip^  away  from  European  dictums  we  can 
now  succeed  in  growing  vitis  vinifera  in  eastern  America  where  old  experi- 
menters failed?  The  Geneva  Experiment  Station  is  putting  this  question  to 
test,  with  what  result  I  am  now  to  tell 

In  the  spring  of  1911  the  station  obtained  cuttings  of  101  varieties  of 
European  grapes  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the 
University  of  California.  The  object  was  to  obtain  European  varieties  to 
hybridize  with  American  grapes.  I  hasten  to  say  that  at  first  there  was  no 
thought  nor  plan  to  experiment  with  thesp  grapes  as  a  cultivated  crop.  The 
cuttings  obtained  were  grafted  on  the  roots  of  a  heterogeneous  collection  of 
seedlings  five  years  set  representing  a  half  dozen  species  of  Vitis  and  hybrids 
between  them  then  growing  on  the  station  grounds.  These  stocks  had  little 
to  recommend  them  except  that  all  were  vigorous,  well  established  and  all 


78  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

• 

were  more  resistant  to  phylloxera  than  the  Old  World  varieties.  From  four 
to  six  grafts  of  each  of  the  hundred  varieties  were  made  and  a  stand  of  380 
vines  resulted,  the  percentage  of  loss  being  exceedingly  small.  The  success 
in  grafting  we  believe  to  be  due  to  the  method  used,  the  value  of  which 
had  been  proved  in  previous  work  on  the  station  grounds. 

In  grafting,  the  earth  was  removed  from  the  plants  to  a  depth  of  two  or 
three  inches.  The  vines  were  sawed  squarely  off  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  stock  was  then  split  for  a  cleft  graft.  Two  scions  were  inserted 
in  each  cleft  and  tied  in  place  with  waxed  string.  Grafting  wax  was  not  used, 
the  wax  being  worse  than  useless  because  of  the  bleeding  of  the  wounds  in 
the  stock. .  The  earth  was  then  replaced  and  enough  more  of  it  used  to  cover 
stock  and  scion  to  prevent  evaporation  from  them.  This  method  of  grafting 
is  available  to  those  who  have  old  vineyards.  It  is  so  simple  that  the  veriest 
tyro  can  thus  graft  grapes.  Were  young  plants  or  cuttings  used  as  stocks 
some  method  of  bench-grafting  would,  of  course,  be  resorted  to. 

The  cultivation  and  spraying  have  been  precisely  that  given  native 
grapes.  There  has  been  no  coddling  of  vines.  The  fungous  diseases  which 
helped  to  destroy  the  vineyards  and  vexed  the  souls  of  the  old  experimenters 
have  been  kept  well  in  check  by  two  sprayings  with  Bordeaux  mixture;  the 
first  application  was  made  just  after  the  fruit  set,  the  second  when  the 
grapes  were  two-thirds  grown.  This  year,  1914,  a  third  spraying  with  a 
tobacco  concoction  kept  thrips  in  check.  Phylloxera  is  present  in  the  vine- 
yard but  no  one  of  the  varieties  on  the  resistant  roots  is  appreciably  suffering 
from  the  pest.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  immunity  to  phylloxera  secured 
by  grafting  is  the  chief  reason  for  the  success  we  are  having  with  these 
grapes — undoubtedly  this  pest  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  early  failures.  The 
stocks  used  in  the  present  work  are  not  those  best  suited  either  to  the  vines 
grafted  on  them  or  to  resist  phylloxera.  Unquestionably  some  of  the  standard 
sorts  used  in  France  and  California  from  Vitis  rupestris  or  Vitis  riparia,  or 
hybrids  of  these  species,  would  have  given  better  results.  From  theoretical 
consideration  it  would  seem  that  the  Vitis  riparia  stocks  should  be  best 
suited  to  the  needs  of  eastern  America. 

It  was  thought  by  the  old  experimenters  that  Vitis  vinifera  failed  in  the 
New  World  because  of  unfavorable  climatic  conditions.  It  was  said  that 
the  winters  were  too  cold  and  the  summers  too  hot  and  dry  for  this  grape. 
During  the  few  years  the  station  vineyard  of  Viniferas  has  been  in  existence 
we  have  had  stresses  of  all  the  kinds  of  weather  to  which  the  variable  climate 
of  New  York  is  subject.  Two  winters  have  been  exceedingly  cold,  killing 
peach  and  pear  trees;  one  summer  gave  us  the  hottest  weather  and  the 
hottest  day  in  twenty-five  years;  the  vines  withstood  two  severe  summer 
drouths  and  one  cold,  wet  summer.  These  test  seasons  have  proved  that 
European  grapes  will  stand  our  climate  as  well  as  the  native  varieties  except 
in  the  matter  of  cold — they  must  have  winter  protection. 

To  growers  of  American  grapes  the  extra  work  of  winter  protection 
seems  to  be  an  insuperable  obstacle.  The  experience  of  several  seasons  at 
Geneva  shows  that  winter  protection  is  a  cheap  and  simple  matter.  Two 
methods  have  been  used;  vines  have  been  covered  with  earth  and  others 
wrapped  with  straw.  The  earth  covering  is  the  cheaper  method  and  the 
more  efficient.  The  vines  are  pruned  and  placed  full  length  on  the  ground 
and  covered  with  a  few  inches  of  earth.  The  cost  of  winter  protection  will 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  79 

run  from  two  to  three  cents  per  vine.  Since  the  European  vines  are  much 
more  productive  than  those  of  the  American  grapes  the  added  cost  of  winter 
protection  will  be  much  more  than  offset  by  the  greater  yield  of  grapes. 
Trellising,  too,  is  simpler  and  less  expensive  for  the  European  grapes,  helping 
further  to  offset  the  cost  of  winter  protection. 

It  is  apparent  at  once  that  European  grapes  must  have  special  treatment 
in  pruning  if  they  are  to  be  annually  laid  on  the  ground.  Several  modifica- 
tions of  European  and  California  practices  can  be  used  in  the  East  to  bring 
the  plants  in  conditions  for  winter  laying-down.  All  methods  of  pruning 
must  have  this  in  common:  new  wood  must  be  brought  up  from  the  base  of 
plant  every  second,  third,  fourth  or  fifth  year  in  order  to  permit  the  bending 
of  the  plant.  In  our  experiences  we  have  no  difficulties  in  so  training  the 
vines.  Briefly,  we  have  maintained  for  each  vine  two  trunks,  one  old,  the 
other  young,  which  we  have  carried  up  to  or  just  below  the  first  wire  in  a 
two-wire  trellis  system  and  from  each  of  these  trunks  we  have  trained  a  cane 
bearing  from  four  to  eight  buds  to  right  and  left  on  a  lower  wire.  The  bear- 
ing shoots  that  grow  from  the  buds  on  these  canes  are  tied  to  the  second 
wire.  In  a  commercial  vineyard,  depending  upon  the  varieties,  our  simple 
method  might  be  modified  in  many  ways  to  meet  conditions. 

The  grower  of  European  grapes  grafted  on  American  vines  may  be  pre- 
pared to  be  surprised  at  the  growth  the  vines  make.  At  the  end  of  the  first 
season  the  grafts  attain  the  magnitude  of  full-sized  vines;  the  second  season 
they  begin  to  fruit  more  or  less  abundantly,  and  the  third  year  they  produce 
approximately  the  same  number  of  bunches  as  a  Concord  or  Niagara  vine, 
and  as  the  bunches  of  most  varieties  are  larger  than  those  of  the  American 
grapes  the  yield,  therefore,  is  greater.  The  European  varieties,  too,  may  be 
set  more  closely  than  the  American  sorts  since  they  are  seldom  such  ram- 
pant growers. 

It  is  quite  too  soon  to  reason  from  this  short  experiment  that  we  are  to 
grow  varieties  of  Vitis  vinifera  commonly  in  New  York,  but  the  behavior  of 
the  vines  on  the  station  grounds  seems  to  indicate  plainly  that  we  may  do  so. 
At  Geneva  the  European  varieties  are  as  vigorous  and  thrifty  as  American 
vines  and  quite  as  easily  managed.  Why  may  we  not  grow  these  grapes  if 
we  protect  them  from  phylloxera,  fungi  and  cold?  In  Europe  there  are 
varieties  of  grapes  for  nearly  every  soil  and  condition  in  the  southern  half 
of  the  continent.  In  Eastern  Europe  and  Western  Asia  the  vines  must  be 
protected  just  as  we  shall  have  to  protect  them  here.  It  seems  almost  certain 
that  from  the  many  sorts  selected  to  meet  the  various  conditions  of  Europe 
we  shall  be  able  to  find  kinds  to  meet  the  diverse  soils  and  climates  of  this 
continent.  And  here,  by  the  way,  we  have  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  wish- 
ing to  grow  these  grapes — that  American  grape-growing  may  not  be  so  local- 
ized as  it  now  is.  Probably  we  shall  find  that  European  grapes  can  be  grown 
in  more  kinds  of  soils  and  under  more  various  conditions  than  can  our  native 
varieties. 

The  culture  of  Vitis  vinifera  in  the  East  gives  us  essentially  a  new  fruit. 
If  any  considerable  degree  of  success  attends  their  culture  then  wine-making 
in  Eastern  America  will  be  revolutionized,  for  the  European  grapes  are  far 
superior  to  the  native  sorts  for  this  purpose.  Varieties  of  Vitis  vinifera  have 
a  higher  sugar  and  solid  content  than  do  those  of  the  American  species  and 
for  this  reason  as  a  rule  keep  longer  and  we  may  thus  expe-t  t'?p.t  thrrup-b 


80  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

these  grapes  the  season  for  this  fruit  will  be  extended.  The  European 
varieties  are  better  flavored,  possessing  a  more  delicate  and  a  richer  vinous 
flavor,  a  more  agreeable  aroma,  and  are  lacking  in  the  acidity  and  somewhat 
obnoxious  foxy  taste  of  many  American  grapes.  Consumers  of  fruit  will  like 
them  better  and  the  demand  for  grapes  will  thus  be  increased. 

The  advent  of  the  European  grape  in  the  vineyards  of  Eastern  America 
ought  quickly  to  bring  about  splendid  varieties  of  hybrids  between  Vitis 
vinifera  and  the  America  species  of  grapes.  As  all  know,  we  have  many  such 
hybrids  but  curiously  enough  scarcely  more  than  a  half  dozen  varieties  of 
European  grapes  have  been  used  in  crossing.  Most  of  these  have  been  green- 
house grapes  and  not  those  that  could  be  expected  to  give  best  results  for 
vineyard  culture.  As  we  come  to  know  the  varieties  best  adapted  to  Ameri- 
can conditions  we  ought  to  be  able  to  select  European  parents  to  better 
advantage  than  we  have  done  in  the  past  and  thus  produce  better  hybrid 
sorts. 

From  the  eighty-five  varieties  of  Vitis  vinifera  now  fruiting  on  the  station 
grounds  we  may  name  the  following  as  worth  trying  on  a  larger  scale: 
Actoni,  a  table  grape;  Chasselas  Golden,  for  the  table;  Cinsaut,  for  table  or 
wine;  Feher  Szagos,  another  table  sort;  Kuristi  Mici,  for  the  table;  Lignan 
Blanc,  a  very  early  table  grape  and  one  of  the  best;  Mantuo  de  Pilas,  Muscat 
Hamburg,  Pinot  Gris  or  Rulander,  three  of  the  best  table  grapes;  Poulsard, 
a  wine  and  table  grape;  Palomino  or  Listan,  a  table  and  wine  grape;  Rosaki, 
a  table  grape;  Sultanina  Rosea,  a  seedless  table  sort;  and  Teinturier,  Petite 
Sirah,  Franken  Riesling  and  Zinfandel,  all  wine  sorts. 

I  have  briefly  set  forth  the  essentials  of  the  work  with  Vitis  vinifera 
in  New  York  but  I  shall  have  missed  an  oportunity  if  this  simple  statement 
of  facts  ends  here.  Permit  me  to  suggest  several  phases  of  the  work  in  need 
of  careful  experimental  attention. 

First,  it  is  imperative  that  we  know  more  about  the  adaptation  of  Euro- 
pean varieties  to  American  conditions.  More  than  five  -thousand  varieties  of 
grapes  are  grown  in  Europe  and  Asia  but  few  of  which  have  been  tried  in 
Eastern  America.  Those  most  promising  for  the  different  States  should  be 
carefully  tried  out. 

Second,  it  is  very  certain  that  we  shall  have  to  grow  European  grapes  on 
American  stocks.  We  must  determine  experimentally  what  stocks  are  best 
for  Eastern  America;  here  the  experience  of  European  countries  and  Cali- 
fornia will  be  most  helpful. 

Third,  a  great  obstacle  in  the  way  of  growing  European  grapes  in  this 
region  is  the  difficulty  in  getting  a  good  stand  of  grafted  plants.  Possibly 
we  shall  have  to  modify  the  methods  used  elsewhere,  and  to  determine  which 
will  be  best  for  us  we  must  do  experiment  work  in  grafting  and  propa- 
gating. 

Fourth,  European  varieties  will  be  differently  affected  by  fungi  and 
insects  than  are  our  native  sorts,  and  it  is  possible  that  we  shall  have  to 
modify  remedial  treatments  of  pests  for  the  foreign  grapes. 

Fifth,  there  is  a  tremendous  field  for  plant  breeders  in  hybridizing  Euro- 
pean and  American  grapes.  The  half  dozen  European  sorts  that  have  been 
used  in  hybridization  are  for  most  part  those  that  would  be  least  expected 
to  give  good  results,  namely,  greenhouse  grapes.  It  is  probable  that  the 
American  grapes  of  the  future  will  be  European  grapes  with  a  dash  of 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  81 

American  blood  in  them.  Plant  breeders  have  a  wonderful  opportunity  to 
breed  grapes  despite  the  fact  that  more  work  has  been  done  with  this  fruit 
in  the  past  hundred  years  than  with  any  other. 

In  conclusion  let  me  exhort  those  of  you  who  have  the  opportunity  to 
carry  on  experiments  with  European  grapes.  The  work  to  be  done  is  so  vast 
that  we  cannot  make  an  appreciable  showing  unless  the  task  be  divided 
among  a  number  of  workers.  If  viticulturists  in  the  different  States  will  but 
concentrate  on  particular  problems  in  the  culture  of  Vitis  vinifera,  sifting  the 
experience  and  knowledge  of  the  world  in  regard  to  them  for  use  under  our 
conditions,  it  is  almost  certain  that  we  can  successfully  grow  some  European 
grapes  in  Eastern  America.  Here,  it  seems  to  me,  is  a  splendid  opportunity 
on  your  part  and  mine  to  serve  viticulture. 


VITICULTURE    ON   THE   PACIFIC    COAST. 

By  FREDERIC  T.  BIOLETTI, 
Professor  of  Viticulture,  University  of  California. 

The  title  of  this  paper  is  misleading  if  it  calls  up  visions  of  luscious 
grapes  bathed  in  the  ocean  spray  of  the  Pacific.  The  cool  summer  fogs  of 
the  Californian  littoral  art  not  favorable  to  grape-growing.  The  vine  does  not 
fear  the  warm  waves  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  it  finds  a  too  close  proximity 
of  the  Japan  current  insalutary.  A  more  appropriate  title  would  be  "Viticul- 
ture on  the  Pacific  Slope." 

This  is  fairly  descriptive  of  the  extreme  western  grape  region  whose 
main  body  lies  on  low  hills,  narrow  valleys  and  wide  plains  from  the  foot  of 
Mount  Shasta  to  the  Mexican  border,  from  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras  to  the 
edge  of  the  Redwood  forest  that  borders  the  coast.  This  body  has  a  numer- 
ous progeny  of  small  descendants  scattered  through  neighboring  states.  Some 
have  extended  north  through  Oregon,  Washington  and  Idaho  almost  to  the 
Canadian  border,  shrinking  ever  further  eastward,  to  escape  the  humid  coast 
condition  which  extends  ever  further  inland  as  we  approach  the  north,  but 
stopping  before  they  reach  the  regions  of  zero  winters  and  stormy  summers. 
From  the  south  they  have  extended  to  southern  Nevada  and  Arizona  and  even 
to  Utah,  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  Except  in  a  few  specially  favored  spots 
however,  they  are  weakly  children  and  their  precarious  existence  is  assured 
only  by  the  most  careful  nursing  and  protection. 

Grape  growing  on  the  Pacific  Slope  differs  so  much  from  that  of  the 
Eastern  States,  both  in  its  material  and  methods,  that  they  have  little  in 
common  and  conclusions  drawn  from  the  experience  of  one  region  may  be 
misleading  if  applied  to  the  other.  A  brief  account  of  western  viticulture, 
with  a  discussion  of  the  causes  of  the  differences,  may  therefore  be  useful 
and  interesting. 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey  in  "The  Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits,"  has 
given  an  account  of  the  early  efforts  to  grow  grapes  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  States.  He  has  described  the  numerous  attempts  to  grow  the  grapes 
of  Europe  there  and  the  earlier  or  later  failure  of  all.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  principal  cause  of  these  failures  was  the  extreme  susceptibility  of  the 


82  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

European  vine  to  certain  fungus  diseases,  especially  to  Downey  Mildew  and 
Black  Rot. 

The  ultimate  success  of  grape-growing  in  these  regions  was  due  to  the 
development  of  varieties  of  the  indigenous  vines  of  the  country  which  were 
more  or  less  resistant  to  the  attacks  of  these  fungous  parasites.  This  substi- 
tution of  varieties  was  made  after  repeated  trials  and  failures  and  at  first 
without  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  reasons  for  the  advantages  obtained. 

The  first  attempts  at  grape  growing  in  California  were  made  also  with 
varieties  of  the  European  grape,  but  unlike  those  of  the  East  they  were 
successful  from  the  first.  For  this  reason,  the  Eastern  varieties  have  never 
been  grown  to  any  large  extent  here  and  our  viticulture  is  based  on  European 
or  allied  varieties. 

The  so-called  European  varieties  are  all  derived  from  the  wild  vine  which 
is  indigenous  or  naturalized  in  all  the  countries  which  border  the  Mediterran- 
ean. The  species  is  the  Vitis  vinifera  which  was  perhaps  the  first  fruit  to 
be  thoroughly  domesticated.  The  5000  or  more  varieties  of  this  fruit  which 
we  now  possess  are  the  result  of  a  millenary  selection  commencing  before 
the  dawn  of  historic  times.  The  result  is  that  we  have  such  a  diversity  of 
characteristics,  of  form,  size,  color  and  flavor  in  the  innumerable  varieties, 
that  some  observers  can  account  for  them  only  by  supposing  that  they  are 
derived  from  the  hybridization  of  several  species.  These  species,  however, 
are  merely  hypothetical,  as  all  the  wild  forms  known  can  be  placed  without 
hesitation  in  the  species  Vinifera. 

The  variations  in  the  fruit  of  Vinifera  varieties  are  much  greater  than 
those  of  Eastern  varieties,  although  the  latter  are  derived  from  selection  and 
hybridization  of  several  well  recognized  species.  In  consequence,  the  Vinifera 
varieties  are  suited  for  a  much  larger  number  of  diverse  purposes  and  for 
most  of  these  purposes  are  superior.  Vinifera  varieties  are  characterized  as 
a  whole  by  vigor,  fruitfulness,  wide  adaptation  to  diverse  soils  and  amena- 
bility to  simple  methods  of  pruning  and  cultivation.  Their  defects  are  in- 
tolerance of  all  but  a  narrow  range  of  climatic  conditions  and  susceptibility 
to  many  serious  fungous  and  insect  pests. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  the  Pacific  Slope  are  exactly  those  preferred 
by  this  species  and  most  of  the  serious  fungous  diseases  cannot  or  at  least  do 
not  exist  here. 

The  excellence  of  the  fruit  and  the  suitability  of  the  climate  explain  the 
almost  exclusive  use  of  Vinifera  varieties  here.  It  is  not  that  we  cannot 
grow  the  Eastern  varieties,  but  that  we  have  no  occasion  to  do  so. 

Grapes  are  grown  in  California  for  three  main  purposes:  1,  wine;  2, 
raisins;  3,  shipping  table  grapes.  These  represent  three  types  of  viticulture 
which,  while  on  the  whole  distinct,  are  not  quite  mutually  exclusive.  The 
growers  of  raisins  and  shipping  grapes  usually  sell  a  portion  of.  their  crop  to 
the  wineries.  The  wineries  use  the  cull,  inferior  or  excess  shipping  grapes. 
This  material  is  used  for  brandy  or  for  a  second-class  wine  and  brings  a  price 
about  50  per  cent  lower  than  that  of  good  wine  grapes.  This  price,  however, 
is  remunerative  to  the  growers,  as,  in  the  absence  of  the  wineries,  a  consider- 
able portion  of  their  crop  would  be  wasted,  or,  still  worse,  forced  on  the 
market  in  competition  with  their  good  grapes,  thus  depressing  the  price  of 
all.  Second-crop  Muscat  grapes,  which  constitute  about  15  to  20  per  cent  of 
the  crop  of  raisin  grapes,  are  disposed  of  in  the  same  way.  Wine  grapes,  on 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  83 

the  other  hand,  cannot  as  a  rule  4?e  used  for  the  other  purposes.  They  are 
unsuited  for  raisins  or  table  use  with  the  exception  of  a  few  varieties  which 
in  the  warmer  districts  are  occasionally  dried  or  shipped  in  small  quantities 
when  the  demand  is  greater  than  the  supply. 

Each  of  these  great  classes  of  viticulture  depends  partly  on  the  use  of 
varieties  with  special  characteristics,  and  partly  on  special  climatic  condi- 
tions. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  raisins  is  made  from  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  the 
Sultanina  (Thompson's  Seedless)  and  the  Sultana.  The  first  produces 
large  raisins  of  the  Spanish  type,  the  last  two,  the  seedless  raisins  known  to 
commerce  as  "Sultanas."  No  other  known  varieties  can  be  substituted  for 
these,  though  fair  raisins  are  made  occasionally  from  a  few  large  grapes  such 
as  Malaga  and  Feher  Szagos.  Currants  or  seedless  raisins  of  the  Zante  or 
Greek  type  are  made  in  small  quantities  from  the  Black  and  White  Corinth 
grapes. 

The  business  of  shipping-grapes  deals  with  a  larger  number  of  varieties, 
though  three  constitute  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  Eastern  or  distant 
shipments.  These  are,  in  order  of  importance,  Flame  Tokay,  Malaga  and 
Emperor.  A  few  others,  notably  Cornichon,  Verdal  and  Black  Morocco,  are 
shipped  in  fairly  large  quantities.  For  Pacific  Coast  markets  the  raisin 
Muscat  and  the  Sultanina  are  used  extensively  and  also,  in  smaller  quantities. 
Black  Prince  (Rose  of  Peru),  Black  Malvoisie,  Black  Ferrara,  Mission, 
Luglienga,  Golden  Chasselas,  Pizzutello  and  Pierce,  the  last  o.ur  only  variety 
of  Labrusca  type,  while  a  score  or  more  of  varieties  are  shipped  occasionally, 
locally  and  in  small  quantities. 

For  wine,  the  list  of  varieties  used  extensively  would  be  too  long  to  give. 
Zinfandel  is  still  the  chief,  but  a  list  of  even  the  important  names  would 
contain  fifty  or  more.  The  total  number  grown  commercially  would  probably 
exceed  a  hundred. 

Among  the  better  varieties  which  have  been  planted  largely  during  recent 
years,  the  principal  is  the  Petite  Sirah;  Alicante  Bouschet  and  Palomino  have 
also  been  extensively  planted,  but  these  are  little  better  than  the  Carignane, 
Mataro  and  Burger  which  they  tend  to  replace.  Many  small  vineyards  of 
fine  varieties,  such  as  Cabernet  Sauvignon,  Colombar  and  Riesling,  exist 
which  in  the  aggregate  constitute  a  considerable  area. 

Among  the  smaller  viticultural  industries  the  manufacture  of  vinegar 
and  of  unfermented  grape  juice  should  be  mentioned.  The  former  is  often 
of  excellent  quality,  but  much  of  it  is  made  from  inferior  and  waste  material 
and  is  therefore  little  better  than  cider  or  other  fruit  vinegars.  The  manu- 
facture of  unfermented  grape  juice  has  not  on  the  whole  been  successful. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  that  the  Concord  juice  entered  the  market  first  and 
formed  the  public  taste  and  that  methods  of  manufacture,  which  are  adequate 
when  dealing  with  the  strongly  marked  Labrusca  varieties,  are  not  sufficiently 
refined  for  the  delicate  qualities  of  Vinifera. 

Climatic  Factors. 

The  chief  climatic  factors  upon  which  the  successful  cultivation  of  Vini- 
fera varieties  depends  are:  1,  Sufficient  heat  during  the  growing  season; 
2,  Dry  air  during  the  hotter  part  of  the  growing  season;  3,  Absence  of  winter 
cold  sufficient  to  kill  the  dormant  vine;  4,  Rarity  of  frosts  during  the  growing 
season. 


84 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Seasonal  Sum  of  Heat. 

According  to  the  observations  of  A.  Angot*  the  buds  of  the  vine  com- 
mence to  start  when  the  mean  daily  temperature  reaches  9°C.  From  this 
point  until  the  ripening  of  the  grapes,  the  sum  of  the  mean  daily  tempera- 
tures above  9°  C.  must  reach  1130°  C.  for  the  earliest  varieties  and  1520° 
for  the  latest. 

In  the  accompanying  diagram,  drawn  from  data  in  the  reports  of  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau,  the  seasonal  sum  of  heat  for  various  typical 
localities  is  shown  graphically.  This  sum  is  indicated  by  a  line  drawn 
through  points  which  represent  the  mean  temperatures  of  every  month  where 
these  temperatures  exceed  48°  F.  (9°  C).  Two  vertical  dashes  drawn  through 
this  line  indicate  the  average  dates  of  ripening  for  the  earliest,  and  for  the 
latest  varieties  according  to  the  data  of  Angot.  Crosses  represent  the  dates 
of  the  latest  spring  frost  and  of  the  earliest  autumn  frost  and  also  the  mean 
dates  for  both  of  these  frosts  where  records  are  available. 


Locality  Rainfall 

Sissons,  elevation,  3555  ft 37.8  in. 

Redding,  Sacramento  Valley 36.2  in. 

Stockton,  Sacramento  Valley 15.5  in. 

Merced,  San  Joaquin  Valley 10.3  in. 

Bakersfield,  San  Joaquin  Valley,     4.8  in. 

Salton,  Coachella  Valley 2.5  in. 

Ukiah,  Coast  Range 35.0  in. 

Napa,  Coast  Range 23.7  in. 

Redlands,  Coast  Range 14.8  in. 

Eureka,  Pacific  Littoral 45.8  in. 

Berkeley,  Pacific  Littoral 26.5  in. 

Raleigh,  North  Carolina....  ..  49.9  in. 


Seasonal 

Sum  of  Heat  above  9°  C. 

Apr.  to  Oct.  2331  F.°— 1295  C.° 

Feb.  to  Nov.  5538  F.°=3077  C.° 

Feb.  to  Nov.  4553  F.°=2529  C° 

Feb.  to  Nov.  5592  F.°=3107  C.° 

Feb.  to  Nov.  6783  F.°— 3768  C.° 

Dec.  to  Nov.10310  F.0=5728  C.° 

Mar.  to  Nov.  3703  F.°=2057  C.° 

Feb.  to  Nov.  3300  F.°— 1833  C.° 

Dec.  to  Nov.  5750  F.°=3195  C.° 

Apr.  to  Nov.  1406  F.°=  770  C.° 

Feb.  to  Nov.  2842  F.0=1579  C.° 

Mar.  to  Nov.  4822  F.°=2679  C.° 


This  diagram  indicates  that  the  data  given  by  Angot  do  not  apply  pre- 
cisely to  California.  In  all  cases,  the  actual  dates  of  ripening  are  from  2  to  4 
weeks  later  than  is  required  by  the  theory.  The  greater  differences  are  in 
the  hotter  localities.  In  the  Coachella  Valley,  for  example,  represented  by  the 
record  for  Salton,  grapes  should  ripen,  according  to  the  theory,  from  May  3 
to  May  23.  Actually  the  earliest  varieties  ripen  there  about  May  15  to  30 
and  the  latest  about  June  15  to  30.  For  Napa  the  diagram  shows  August  12 
to  September  24  as  the  dates  of  ripening.  The  actual  mean  dates  are  about 
from  September  1  to  October  15.  Undoubtedly  other  factors  enter  into  the 
result.  It  may  be  that  the  daily  range  of  temperature  affects  the  rate  of 
ripening.  Delay,  due  to  the  cool  nights  of  the  Californian  summer,  may 
counteract  the  acceleration  due  to  the  hot  days.  It  may  be,  also,  that  in  the 
hottest  regions  the  temperature  of  maximum  acceleration  is  passed.  The  last 
increments  of  heat  at  Bakersfield  and  Salton,  while  undoubtedly  hastening 
the  ripening,  may  do  so  to  a  less  extent  than  equal  increments  at  lower 
temperatures. 


*  Etudes  sur  les  vendanges  en  France  (Annales  du  Bureau  central  me"teor- 
logique,  1883).    See  also,  Viala  &  Vermorel,  "Ampelographie"  T.  I.  p.  636. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION 


85 


0  JF  MAMJJ  A  S  0 H 


Si    5   J  o  n  J 


D  J"  FM  AM  J  J  J\S  0  N 


S  a  I  i-  o 


V'F 


E  n  c  e 


DIAGRAM. 

Rainfall  and  Temperature  of  various  localities  on  the  Pacific  Slope 
compared  with  a  typical  region  of  summer  rains. 


86 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


A  decrease  of  the  difference  in  the  time  of  ripening  between  early  and 
late  varieties  in  the  hotter  localities  is  shown  by  comparing  the  dates  for 
Salton  with  those  for  Napa,  as  indicated  by  the  vertical  dashes.  In  the 
former  the  interval  between  the  dashes  represents  20  days,  in  the  latter  43 
days.  This  corresponds  very  closely  with  the  observed  facts. 

That  the  conclusions  of  Angot  do  not  apply  exactly  to  California  is  shown 
by  data  obtained  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  from  experiments 
carried  out  in  Fresno  and  Yolo  counties  in  1913  and  1914. 

The  starting  of  the  buds  of  the  raisin  Muscat  occurs  in  both  of  these 
regions  on  the  average  about  the  middle  of  March.  The  mean  temperature 
for  March  at  Fresno  is  54.9°  F.  (12.7°  C)  and  at  Davis,  Yolo  County,  56.2°  F. 
(13.5°  C.).  This  indicates  that  the  mean  daily  temperature  necessary  to  start 
the  buds  in  these  regions  is  from  four  to  five  degrees  higher  than  Angot's 
9°  C. 

The  seasonal  sum  of  heat  necessary  to  ripen  the  grapes  will  depend  on 
the  degree  of  maturity  chosen.  The  most  favorable  degrees  for  shipping 
grapes,  for  dry  wine  grapes  and  for  raisin  grapes  represents  three  different 
stages  of  maturity.  Whichever  of  these  we  chose,  however,  it  appears  that 
Angot's  estimates  are  too  low  for  the  great  interior  valley  of  California. 
This  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  following  table,  which  represents  three  sets 
of  tests  of  ripening  Muscat  grapes,  two  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  one 
in  the  Sacramento.  The  data  given  are  the  date  of  gathering  and  the  Balling 
degree  and  seasonal  sum  of  heat  to  that  date.  The  sum  is  reckoned  from 
March  15,  the  average  date  of  the  starting  of  the  buds. 


Seasonal  Sum  of  Heat  for  Muscat. 
Kearney,  Fresno  County,  1914.     Mean  for  Year,  17.6 
Date  of  Gathering.  Bal. 

Aug.    12  18.6 

Aug.    19  20.2 

Aug.    26  21.8 

Sept.     3  23.6 

Sept.     9  24.0 

Sept.   16  23.8 

Sept.   23  26.5 


Sum  above  9°  C. 
from  March  15,  1915. 
1858 
1983 
2109 
2231 
2360 
2486 
2612 


Kearney,  Fresno  County,  1913.     Mean  for  Year,  17.6 


Aug.  17 
Aug.  23 
Aug.  30 
Sept.  8 
Sept.  16 


21.0 
23.9 
25.5 
26.8 

28.8 


Davis,  Yolo  County,  1914. 
Aug.    26  21.4 

Sept.     2  25.8 

Sept.     8  26.1 

Sept.   16  26.5 

Sept.   23  28,7 


1917 
2034 
2170 
2317 
2443 

Mean  for  Year,  15.1 
1549 
1612 
1677 
1764 
1841 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  87 

These  figures  indicate  that  the  minimum  degree  of  ripeness,  that  neces- 
sary for  table  grapes,  requires  about  1900  units  of  heat  or  about  400  more 
than  Angot's  maximum  in  the  case  of  Muscat  at  Fresno.  The  degree  of  ripe- 
ness necessary  for  raisin-making  similarly  requires  about  2300  units  or  900 
more.  At  Davis  the  figures  approximate  those  of  Angot  more  closely,  being 
about  1500  and  1700  respectively.  This  fortifies  the  conclusion  already 
reached  by  a  different  route  that  in  warmer  regions  more  heat  is  needed 
than  in  cooler  for  the  same  results.  Accepting  the  minimum  degree  of  ripe- 
ness as  representing  Angot's  calculation,  the  400  extra  units  needed  at  Fresno 
represent  almost  exactly  the  heat  of  the  month  of  August.  Grapes  which 
should  ripen  according  to  the  theory  about  August  1,  actually  ripen  at  Fresno 
about  September  1,  or  four  weeks  later. 

The  seasonal  sum  of  heat  is  sufficient  in  all  the  cases  shown  in  Fig.  I 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  Eureka,  even  though  we  allow  an  increase  of 
time  of  three  weeks  over  that  required  by  Angot's  theory.  The  figures,  how- 
ever, represent  averages  for  a  term  of  years  and  the  variations  between 
different  years  are  considerable.  No  locality  is  safe  for  planting,  therefore, 
where  the  average  seasonal  sum  is  close  to  the  minimum.  This  is  the  case 
of  Berkeley,  where  even  early  grapes  do  not  ripen  every  year.  At  Sissons, 
near  the  northern  border  of  California,  the  sum  of  heat  is  sufficient  for  early 
varieties,  but  the  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of  frost  even  in  July  makes 
grape  growing  uncertain. 

The  temperature  curve  for  Napa  shows  some  of  the  causes  of  the  super- 
iority of  the  Coast  ranges  and  valleys  for  the  production  of  dry  wine.  The 
development  of  the  vine  and  its  fruit  there  requires  from  seven  to  eight 
months,  as  compared  to  the  five  or  six  months  shown  for  Bakersfield  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  This  slow  ripening  results  in  a  higher 
acidity  at  maturity  and  brings  the  vintage  to  a  time  of  year  when  the  weather 
is  cool  and  favorable  to  proper  fermentation. 

The  temperature  curves  for  Merced  and  Bakersfield  show  ideal  climatic 
conditions  for  the  production  of  raisins.  The  sum  of  heat  necessary  for  the 
ripening  of  even  late  varieties,  is  obtained  while  there  still  remain  several 
weeks  or  hot,  dry  weather  for  the  drying  of  the  raisins.  The  temperature 
conditions  for  Redding,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  are  almost 
identical  with  those  of  the  corresponding  part  of  the  San  Joaquin,  but  the 
autumn  rains  are  more  abundant  and  occur  about  a  month  earlier.  This 
makes  the  drying  of  raisins  precarious. 

Dry  Summers. 

The  black  areas  on  the  diagram  indicate  the  annual  rainfall  for  each 
locality  and  its  distribution  by  months.  They  show  apparently  that  the  con- 
dition of  a  dry  summer  is  fulfilled  for  all  the  California  localities.  The 
absence  of  rain,  however,  is  not  all  that  is  needed.  The  harm  of  summer 
moisture  is  not  due  to  the  wetting  of  the  soil.  This  may  be  an  advantage  and 
is  often  brought  about  intentionally  by  means  of  irrigation.  Harm  results 
only  when  the  air  is  both  warm  and  moist  for  considerable  periods.  Such  a 
condition  is  shown  by  the  record  for  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  which  shows  that  the 
warmest  month  is  also  the  wettest  and  that  rain  falls  abundantly  during 
every  month  of  the  growing  season.  So  much  rain  cannot  fall  without  pro- 
ducing excessive  moisture  in  the  air  for  considerable  periods.  It  is  this 


-88  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

combination  of  high  temperature  and  moist  air,  which  favors  the  development 
of  fungous  diseases  and  makes  their  control  difficult  or  impossible. 

Even  Eureka  and  Berkeley  have  two  months  of  almost  complete  absence 
of  rain  and  two  more  months  when  the  rain  is  too  scant  to  keep  the  air  moist 
for  injuriously  long  periods.  The  summers  in  these  localities,  in  fact,  are 
about  as  free  from  rain  as  in  Ukiah  and  Redding,  where  all  grapes  succeed 
admirably.  Lack  of  heat  is  a  sufficient  cause  for  failure  at  Eureka  but  at 
Berkeley,  where  the  heat  is  ample  for  early  varieties,  the  presence  of  frequent 
summer  fogs  is  sufficient  to  make  their  crops  very  uncertain.  These  fogs 
militate  against  grape  growing  to  an  increasing  degree,  as  we  go  north  from 
San  Francisco,  but  their  effect  decreases  gradually  as  we  go  south.  Grapes 
are  grown  in  favored  spots  within  a  few  miles  of  the  ocean  from  Santa  Cruz 
south,  but  much  trouble  is  experienced  in  controlling  the  Oidium. 

Winter  Killing. 

The  killing  of  dormant  vines  by  cold  is  practically  unknown  in  California. 
A  thoroughly  dormant  vine  is  seldom  hurt  by  temperatures  above  10°  F., 
unless  it  is  of  a  tender  variety  or  growing  in  very  wet  soil.  Where  the  tem- 
perature falls  to  5°  F.  or  lower,  most  varieties  will  be  killed  to  the  ground 
unless  protected.  Such  temperatures  do  not  occur  in  California,  except  at 
high  elevations  where  the  summers  are  too  cool  for  grape  growing.  In  more 
northerly  and  easterly  localities,  such  winter  temperatures  may  occur  even 
where  the  summer  temperature  is  favorable.  In  such  localities,  vinifera 
varieties  may  be  grown  if  protected  with  straw  or  soil  during  the  winter. 
Autumn  killing  occurs  occasionally  in  nearly  all  parts  of  California,  especially 
in  the  wide  plains  of  the  interior.  It  is  due  to  excessively  late  growth  of  the 
vines,  which  maintains  them  in  a  susceptible  condition  until  the  first  autumn 
frosts.  It  occurs  most  commonly  in  vineyards  of  two  or  three  years  of  age, 
growing  in  rich  moist  soil.  Younger  vines  are  shallower  rooted  and  the  dry- 
ing of  the  upper  soil  causes  them  to  become  dormant  earlier.  The  drain  of 
the  crop  on  the  vital  activities  of  bearing  vines  has  the  same  effect.  In  all 
cases  it  can  be  prevented  by  appropriate  cultural  methods  which  insure  the 
dormancy  of  the  vine  before  November. 

Extent  of  the   Industry. 

The  vineyards  of  California  covered  in  1912  about  385,000  acres.  Of  this 
total,  about  180,000  acres  were  producing  wine  grapes.  Roughly,  50  per  cent 
of  the  wine  was  produced  in  the  great  interior  valleys,  including  most  of  the 
sweet  wines;  35  per  cent  was  produced  by  the  valleys  and  hillsides  of  the 
Coast  ranges,  including  most  of  the  dry  wines;  the  remaining  15  per  cent 
was  produced  in  Southern  California  and  included  both  sweet  and  dry. 

The  raisin-grape  vineyards  covered  about  130,000  acres,  of  which  about 
90  per  cent  were  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  7  per  cent  in  the  Sacramento,  and 
3  per  cent  in  Southern  California. 

The  shipping-grape  vineyards  are  reckoned  at  75,000  acres,  distributed 
about  as  follows:  40  per  cent  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  40  per  cent  in  the 
San  Joaquin,  G  per  cent  in  Southern  California,  and  4  per  cent  in  the  Coast 
ranges. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  89 

THE  VINEYARDS  OF  THE  COLUMBIA  RIVER  BASIN. 

By  E.  H.  TWIGHT, 
Guasti,  California. 


The  Grape  Growing  Districts  of  the  States  of  Washington  and  Idaho  are 
found  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  on  the  bench  lands  overlooking  the 
Columbia  River  and  its  affluent,  the  Snake  River  (and  its  affluent,  the  Clear 
Water) ;  the  Yakima,  the  Wenatchee  and  the  Okanogan  Rivers. 

The  soil  of  those  benches  is  either  volcanic  ash  or  decomposed  granite; 
these  soils  have  made  a  reputation  in  growing  some  of  the  best  apples  in  the 
world  and  have  now  added  to  their  laurels  by  producing  grapes,  that  in  color, 
quality,  flavor  and  even  quantity  are  unsurpassed. 

The  climate  shows  the  usual  effect  of  the  Coast  Range  on  the  lands  laying 
east  of  it;  very  dry  through  the  growing  season  and  with  a  rainfall  (of  6  to 
14  inches)  which  takes  place  mostly  in  winter  and  in  the  shape  of  snow. 
The  Cascade  Mountains  being  higher  than  the  Coast  Range  further  south 
their  effect  is  more  striking  and  the  trade  winds  from  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
heavy  with  moisture  when  they  reach  the  coast,  have  abandoned  nearly  all 
of  it  before  they  have  overcome  the  great  barrier  of  the  Cascades.  Thus 
we  find  that  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  at  Astoria  the  mean  rainfall  is 
76.09  inches;  at  Vancouver,  near  the  junction  of  the  Willamette  and  the 
Columbia,  and  only  90  miles  up,  the  annual  average  rainfall  has  dropped  to 
45  inches,  and  just  across  the  gorges  through  which  the  Columbia  forces  its 
way  through  the  Cascades,  at  the  Dalles,  84  miles  further  up  river,  the  rain 
fall  has  dropped  to  14  inches.  The  minimum  is  met  a  little  further  east  near 
Pasco,  300  miles  from  Astoria,  where  the  Columbia  swings  north  and  receives 
the  Snake  River  from  the  east;  here  the  mean  annual  rain  fall  is  about  6 
inches.  Following  the  Columbia  River  north  we  find  at  Wenatchee  13.71;  at 
Brewster  at  the  mouth  of  the  Okanogan  13.52.  If  we  follow  up  the  Snake 
River  we  find  at  Lewiston  13.48. 

From  these  figures  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  grape  culture  in  the  Colum- 
bia Basin  can  only  be  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  irrigation.  It  is  true  that 
in  many  instances  grape  vines  will  grow  without  irrigation  for  the  first  two 
or  three  years,  but  when  they  come  into  bearing  they  need  water  to  give  a 
marketable  crop. 

As  regards  the  seasonal  changes,  we  find  that  during  the  growing  season 
the  hours  of  sunshine  are  probably  greater  than  in  the  most  favored  districts 
in  the  world.  The  days  are  long  with  hardly  ever  a  cloud  in  the  sky,  from 
early  spring  until  fall.  The  summers  are  warm,  the  temperature  reaching 
sometimes  over  one  hundred,  and  this  insures  a  good  supply  of  sugar  in  the 
grapes. 

The  fall  brings  a  little  rain,  usually  enough  to  help  plowing,  but  it  is 
through  winter  that  most  of  the  moisture  comes,  a  good  deal  of  it  in  the 
shape  of  snow. 

There  are  usually  two  or  three  cold  spells  in  winter  when  the  tempera- 
ture may  drop  around  zero,  but  with  well  matured  wood  most  varieties  stand 
well;  especially  when  there  is  a  good  coat  of  snow  on  the  ground. 


90  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

In  some  parts  of  the  Columbia  River  Valley,  on  the  lower  levels  where 
very  little  show  falls,  there  is  a  very  early  start  of  vegetation  in  the  spring; 
this  is  frequently  followed  by  a  cold  snap,  and  in  such  locations  the  vines 
are  frequently  not  profitable,  unless  well  covered  up  through  winter.  This 
covering  can  be  done  without  much  expense  if  a  low  cordon  system  of  prim- 
ing is  followed.  The  best  locations  however  are  those  where,  on  account  of 
the  heavier  snow  fall  this  early  start  does  not  take  place;  the  vine  remains 
dormant  until  the  late  frosts  are  over.  In  some  of  these  favored  locations 
no  winter  protection  is  needed. 

The  cold  dormant  season,  followed  by  a  continuous,  cloudless  warm  grow- 
ing season  insures  a  great  perfection  in  the  grapes  and  results  have  been  very 
gratifying. 

At  the  Dalles,  at  Wenatchee  and  on  the  Clear  Water  and  Snake  Rivers 
some  attempts  have  been  made  to  plant  wine  grapes  and  to  manufacture 
wine.  Some  of  the  choicest  varieties  from  Europe  were  planted  and  very 
satisfactory  results  obtained  especially  with  grapes  of  the  Burgundy  and 
Rhine  types.  The  wines  have  maintained  a  fine  bouquet  while  having  a 
good  alcoholic  degree  and  fine  acidity.  One  of  the  pioneers  Mr.  Schleicher, 
of  Lewiston  (Idaho),  laid  out  a  regular  experimental  vineyard  of  some  35  or 
40  acres  on  a  bench  a  few  miles  above  Lewiston  on  the  Clear  Water;  most 
of  these  varieties  were  obtained  through  the  writer  from  the  collections  of 
the  University  of  California.  Wh^e  the  great  number  of  varieties  only 
allowed  making  comparatively  small  amounts  of  the  different  types,  it  has 
been  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  high  grade  of  the  products  that  can 
be  made  here.  Connoisseurs  from  Portland,  and  from  Seattle  are  anxious 
to  secure  the  bottled  products  that  Mr.  Schleicher  has  offered  from  time  to 
time. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  Prohibition  Movement  has  not  so  far  separated 
the  manufacture  of  pure  wholesome  wines  and  ciders  from  the  so-called 
saloon  business.  If  there  was  a  guarantee  of  protection  in  the  future, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  a  very  important  industry  could  be  built  up 
in  those  districts.  There  would  be  practically  no  competition  with  California 
wines,  the  climate  of  the  Columbia  River  enabling  the  grower  to  make  a  type 
of  wine  that  cannot  be  made  in  California  in  the  districts  at  present  devoted 
to  grape  culture.  There  would  be  as  much  difference  between  California  and 
the  Columbia  types  as  there  is  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Languedoc  or 
Provence. 

However,  on  account  of  the  fear  of  future  interference  the  great  bulk  of 
the  planting  has  been  done  with  a  view  to  develope  the  table  grape  and  grape 
juice  industries.  Of  possibly  5000  acres  in  the  Columbia  Basin  not  over  one 
tenth  is  planted  to  wine  grapes. 

The  most  important  centers  of  the  table  grape  industry  are  Kennewick, 
Prosser  and  Pasco. 

The  European  varieties  planted  have  generally  been  introduced  from 
California  and  thus  we  find  the  Flame  Tokay,  the  Cornichon,  the  Emperor, 
Rose  of  Peru,  and  Black  Hamburg  in  the  lead  of  the  red  grapes,  while  Muscat, 
Malaga  and  Chasselas  are  planted  mostly  for  the  whites.  All  of  these  ripen 
well;  however,  the  Malaga  and  the  Muscat  lack  sometimes  in  sweetness. 
The  Flame  Tokey  does  wonderfully  well,  the  coloring  and  size  being  equal  to 
the  very  choicest  California  product.  As  these  grapes  usually  come  into 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  91 

the  market  after  the  California  product  is  through  they  receive  a  good  price. 
With  some  attention  they  can  be  carried  until  Thanksgiving  when  excellent 
prices  can  be  obtained. 

The  Eastern  varieties  have  been  planted  more  extensively  than  the 
European  varieties,  partly  because  they  stand  the  winter  better  and  partly 
because  the  growers  have  in  mind  the  manufacture  of  grape  juice  for  which 
these  eastern  varieties  are  better  adapted.  The  Concord,  the  Worden,  the 
Moore's  Early,  and  Campbell  Early  are  the  favorite  varieties.  The  Campbell 
Early  seems  to  head  the  list;  a  vigorous  grower  it  bears  enormously  and 
ripens  early  in  August  bringing  very  satisfactory  prices. 

Regarding  the  danger  of  disease,  the  experience  here  seems  to  be  similar 
to  that  of  California;  the  dry  climate  seems  to  be  a  protection  against  fungous 
diseases,  the  only  one  that  seems  to  be  troublesome  being  the  Oidium  (Cali- 
fornia Mildew)  and  that  is  easily  checked  with  the  usual  sulphur  application. 

Phylloxera  exists  in  some  of  the  vineyards  of  the  Clearwater  district, 
and  the  wholesale  importation  of  rooted  vines  from  California  and  the  East 
will  probably  distribute  the  pest  thru  the  new  districts  so  that  the  usual 
problems  of  reconstruction  will  come  up.  There  will  be  no  difficulty  to  find 
suitable  stock  for  the  soils  of  those  new  districts.  The  writer  warned 
repeatedly  the  growers  of  the  danger  of  introducing  phylloxera  but  appar- 
ently to  no  avail. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  grape  industry  has  a  great  future  in  the 
Columbia  River  Basin,  even  though  at  present  the  wine  industry  may  not 
be  taken  up.  There  has  been  so  much  over-enthusiasm  towards  the  apple 
industry  that  when  the  reaction  sets  in  more  attention  will  be  given  to  other 
branches  of  horticulture:  the  fair  returns  that  have  been  obtained  by  the 
grape  growers  are  bound  to  induce  many  to  plant  grapes. 

At  present  few  grapes  are  being  shipped  outside  of  the  local  State 
markets;  with  three  transcontinental  lines  close  at  hand  the  shipping  facili- 
ties are  excellent  to  reach  the  markets  of  St.  Paul,  Chicago  and  Canada. 

With  the  advantages  of  soil,  climate,  and  transportation  certainly  in  a 
few  years  the  Columbia  River  grapes  will  be  as  well  known  as  their  beautiful 
red  apples  are  today. 


THE  GRAPE  IN  OREGON. 

By  C.  I.  LEWIS, 

Chief,  Division  of  Horticulture,  Oregon  Agricultural  College, 
Corvallis,  Oregon. 


Grape  growing  in  Oregon  has  never  reached  large  proportions.  The 
people  of  the  State  have  not  taken  up  the  culture  of  this  fruit  to  the  same 
extent  as  they  have  that  of  the  apple,  pear,  prune  and  cherry.  The  State, 
however,  stands  eighteenth  in  the  Union,  according  to  the  last  census,  and 
at  that  time  had  381,302  bearing  vines.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  grape  growing  in  this  country  is  highly  specialized  and  that  there  are 
only  about  a  dozen  states  that  have  an  industry  of  much  importance.  At  the 
present  time  the  State  of  Oregon  is  importing  large  quantities  of  grapes. 


92  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

They  come  from  two  sources:  from  California,  which  ships  us  large  quanti- 
ties of  Malaga,  Tokay,  Muscat  and  similar  varieties,  and  from  New  York 
State  which  furnishes  us  principally  with  Concord. 

The  State  occupies  a  peculiar  position  in  that  it  has  a  range  of  climate 
and  soil  that  allow  the  production  of  the  two  great  types  of  grapes,  namely, 
the  Vinifera  and  those  of  American  blood,  principally  V.  labrusca.  The  con- 
sumption of  grapes  in  the  State,  however,  is  relatively  low  and  could  be 
increased  many  fold.  The  cause  of  the  low  consumption  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  many  of  our  local  grapes  are  of  poor  quality  and  that  some  sections  have 
not  determined  the  types  and  varieties  best  adapted  to  their  conditions.  As 
a  result  much  sour  or  immature  fruit  is  placed  on  the  market.  This  seems 
to  be  the  limiting  factor  as  far  as  consumption  is  concerned. 

There  are  also  limiting  factors  which  determine  production  in  certain 
parts  of  the  State.  First,  as  regards  production  of  the  Vinifera  or  European 
type  of  grapes;  east  of  the  mountains,  the  limiting  factor  becomes  the  winter 
cold  making  it  necessary  in  many  sections  to  give  the  vines  artificial  cover- 
ing; and  in  some  sections  west  of  the  mountains  the  limiting  factor  is  mildew. 
Then,  with  the  American  grapes,  in  some  portions  of  the  State,  such  as  the 
coast  counties  and  cooler  portions  of  the  State,  it  has  been  difficult  to  mature 
some  varieties.  Many  of  the  grapes  produced  on  such  locations  are  too  tart 
to  satisfy  the  trade.  There  are  in  this  State,  however,  large  areas  where 
the  climate  and  soil  are  splendidly  adapted  to  grape  production,  and  Oregon 
should  become  an  exporter  of  grapes  and  grape  products. 

The  Vinifera  grapes  will  be  limited  to  about  three  sections:  First,  South- 
ern Oregon,  especially  Jackson  and  Josephine  Counties.  Mr.  A.  H.  Carson 
of  Grants  Pass  has  made  a  signal  success  of  producing  both  Vinifera  and 
American  grapes.  On  the  higher  altitudes  and  red  shot  soils,  the  grapes 
succeed  very  nicely.  In  the  Columbia  Basin,  the  Vinifera  grape  will  succeed 
and  The  Dalles  is  a  splendid  location.  This  section  has  a  moderate  winter 
climate.  Further  to  the  east  some  Vinifera  grapes  are  also  produced. 

For  the  American  grapes,  Southern  Oregon — including  the  Umpqua  and 
the. Rogue  River  Valleys — is  one  of  the  leading  sections  of  the  State.  The 
Columbia  Basin,  especially  such  sections  as  Stanfield  and  Hermiston,  are 
producing  grapes  of  very  fine  quality  and  of  high  sugar  contents.  Eventually 
this  region  should  have  grape  juice  factories  established  to  take  care  of  their 
product.  On  the  warm  exposures  in  the  Willamette  Valley,  these  grapes 
succeed  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Portland,  at  such  points  as  Milwaukee  and 
Forest  Grove,  many  of  the  farmers  are  producing  high  quality  grapes. 

The  marketing  question  in  the  State  is  a  serious  one,  especially  as  far 
as  the  American  varieties  are  concerned.  We  have  about  reached  that  point 
where  not  much  expansion  can  be  hoped  for  until  grape  juice  factories  can 
be  established.  At  the  present  time  the  total  consumption  of  grapes  produced 
fresh  about  equals  the  supply,  but  at  times  the  American  grape  is  a  drug  on 
the  market  and  the  prices  received  not  remunerative.  It  would  certainly 
pay  to  have  a  juice  outlet  so  that  this  condition  could  be  remedied. 

There  is  not  much  we  can  say  regarding  soils.  The  grape  needs  the 
same  type  of  soil  here  as  it  does  in  any  other  section.  They  seem  to  succeed 
better  in  the  lighter  types  of  loam  or  the  well-drained  types  of  soil.  They 
also  seem  to  succeed  in  rather  dry  soils  and  in  some  cases  in  rather  shallow 
soils  provided  the  roots  can  get  through  the  cracks  and  seams  in  the  rock 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  93 

and  reach  the  lower  strata.     Certain  varieties  and  certain  stocks  demand 
special  soil. 

Not  much  work  has  been  done  with  stocks  for  grapes,  but  at  the  Umatilla 
Experiment  Station,  Hermiston,  Oregon,  we  have  inaugurated  a  number  of 
experiments  with  grapes  and  are  experimenting  with  double  working.  A 
bulletin  is  now  in  press  concerning  grape  growing  in  that  section. 

Varieties. 

We  find  a  tremendous  range  as  regards  adaptability  of  the  different 
varieties.  The  principal  varieties  of  Vinifera  grapes  for  Southern  Oregon 
are  Tokay,  Malaga,  Muscat,  Thompson  Seedless,  Rose  of  Peru;  American 
varieties:  Worden,  Concord,  Delaware,  Moore's  Diamond,  Niagara. 

In  the  Willamette  Valley,  we  have  been  growing  at  this  Experiment 
Station  a  large  number  of  varieties  and  find  that  the  following  succeed  best: 
blue  grapes:  Moore's  Early,  Worden;  white  grapes:  Moore's  Diamond, 
Niagara;  red  grapes:  Brighton,  Delaware.  There  are  some  other  very  promis- 
ing varieties,  Campbell's  Early  meeting  with  considerable  favor  and  a  few 
of  the  growers  finding  Regal  one  of  their  best  grapes. 

For   Eastern   Oregon   the  following   recommendations   and   descriptions 
taken  from  Bulletin  126   (now  in  the  press)   on  Grape  Growing  in  Eastern 
Oregon,  by  Professor  R.  W.  Allen,  will  be  of  interest: 
Recommendations : 

The  Concord  and  Worden  are  preferred  for  the  manufacture  of  black 
juice.  For  red  juice,  the  Catawba  is  preferred. 

Early  Moore,  Winchell  and  Delaware  are  promising  for  early  dessert 
varieties.  The  Early  Campbell,  Worden  and  Diamond  are  superior  mid- 
season  varieties.  For  late  season  and  storage  varieties  the  Concord,  Catawba 
and  Niagara  are  preferable. 

But  a  small  number  of  Viniferas  can  be  recommended  for  general  plant- 
ing as  late  varieties  do  not  reach  full  maturity.  The  most  successful  are 
Sultanina  (Thompson's  Seedless),  Malaga,  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  Flame 
Tokay,  Black  Hamburg  and  Black  Prince. 

Varieties  for  home  use  should  be  selected  from  this  list.  It  includes  a 
sufficient  number  from  which  a  succession  of  hardy  and  productive  varieties 
can  be  taken  to  supply  fresh  fruit  from  August  to  December,  or  until  January 
with  proper  storage. 

Tillage. 

Very  little  can  be  said  regarding  tillage.  The  same  rules  that  apply 
to  other  fruits  apply  in  grape  production.  The  main  point  is  to  sufficiently 
till  the  ground  so  as  to  maintain  the  vigor  of  the  plant  the  first  two  or  three 
years  after  planting  for  if  neglected  at  that  time  they  rarely  become  heavy 
producers. 

In  the  irrigated  district,  great  care  must  be  taken  in  irrigation.  The 
rill  system  is  generally  used  and  on  some  sandy  soils,  irrigation  will  have  to 
be  given  every  two  or  three  days. 

Some  growers  are  using  cover  crops  to  splendid  advantage.  There  is 
danger,  however,  of  overdoing  the  use  of  cover  crops  or  the  application  of 
nitrogenous  manures  in  any  form.  While  the  grape  is  a  heavy  feeder,  too 
much  nitrogen  produces  a  vigorous  plant  growth  at  the  expense  of  fruit. 


94  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Pruning. 

American  varieties  are  pruned  very  much  the  same  as  in  New  York, 
the  renewal  system  being  one  in  vogue  using  various  combinations  of  arms, 
such  as  the  two-arm,  the  four-arm,  the  fan  shape.  The  Kniffin,  both  two 
and  -  four-arm,  system  and  occasionally  the  Munson  system  are  used  also. 
Since  these  systems  are  described  so  thoroughly  in  various  books  on  pruning 
and  grape  bulletins,  it  would  be  merely  repetition  to  describe  them  here. 

The  system  of  pruning  the  Vinifera  grape  is  greatly  modified  from  that 
used  in  California.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  we  must  give  artificial 
protection.  In  those  sections  where  artificial  protection  is  not  necessary,  the 
California  system  of  pruning  the  Vinifera  is  used.  Mr.  R.  W.  Allen,  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Eastern  Oregon  Experiment  Station,  Hermiston,  has  found  the 
following  system  of  pruning  the  Vinifera  to  give  very  good  results: 

Training  and  Pruning  Viniferas. 

Vinifera  plants  require  being  kept  near  the  ground  to  facilitate  covering 
for  protection  in  winter.  They  can  be  trained  to  low  stumps  (the  short 
system)  or  horizontal  arms,  that  can  either  be  left  on  the  ground  during 
summer  or  tied  up  to  the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis.  Shoots  springing  from 
spurs  on  older  wood  of  the  plants  constitute  the  fruit  part  and  should  be  tied 
up  to  a  trellis. 

A  form  of  trellis  with  two  wires  is  in  common  use.  When  the  horizontal 
arms  are  tied  up  to  the  lower  wire,  three  wires  become  necessary. 

Pruning  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  leaves  fall,  so  the  plants  may  be 
covered  before  cool  weather  occurs. 
The  Short  or  Stump  System: 

Training  young  plants  for  the  stump  system  is  simple.  It  consists  in 
pruning  back  to  short  spurs  near  the  crown  of  the  plants  until  a  stump,  or 
much  branched  stem,  is  established.  These  stems,  or  bodies,  should  be  kept 
close  to  the  ground  to  facilitate  covering.  Pruning  is  accomplished  by  cutting 
back  a  few  strong  shoots  to  spurs  having  two  or  three  buds,  and  in  removing 
all  the  remaining  growth.  The  stump  is  kept  from  gaining  in  height  by  care- 
ful selection  and  close  pruning  of  spurs. 

The  fruit  wood  should  be  tied  up  to  the  trellis,  and  all  remaining  growth 
removed.     Other  shoots  or  sprouts  that  come  on  during  the  growing  season 
need  to  be  removed  to  prevent  excessive  shading  of  the  fruit  near  the  center 
of  the  bushes. 
Horizontal  Arm  System: 

Young  plants  are  trained  to  the  horizontal  arm  system  by  confining  the 
growth  to  a  small  number  of  shoots  (one  or  two)  until  two  strong  canes  are 
produced.  One  cane  is  made  secure  in  a  horizontal  position  each  way  in  the 
row  from  the  plant,  and  the  ends  removed  at  a  point  near  the  center  of  the 
space  between  the  plants.  Growth  springing  from  these  permanent  arms 
constitutes  the  fruiting  parts  of  the  plant  and  is  tied  on  to  the  trellis  each 
year  in  a  vertical  position. 

The  pruning  of  vines  trained  to  this  system  is  accomplished  by  cutting 
the  canes  back  each  winter  to  spurs  on  the  permanent  arms.  The  number  of 
spurs  left  on  each  plant  should  be  influenced  by  its  vigor.  As  many  canes 
as  the  plant  can  support  should  be  tied  up  to  the  trellis  as  soon  as  they  are 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  95 

large  enough,  and  at  the  same  time  all  remaining  growth  should  be  removed. 
This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  new  growth  gets  long  enough  to  reach  the 
top  wire  of  the  trellis. 
When  to  Prune: 

The  heavy  annual  pruning  necessary  to  regulate  the  fruit  of  vines  should 
be  done  during  the  dormant  season.  Plants  that  require  winter  protection 
need  to  be  pruned  as  soon  as  they  become  dormant.  Hardy  vines  can  be 
pruned  at  any  time  during  the  dormant  season  when  the  wood  is  not  frozen. 
It  is  advisable,  however,  to  prune  before  February  in  this  region  as  late 
pruning  frequently  results  in  bleeding  and  serious  weakening  of  the  plants. 

Summer  pruning  to  diminish  shade  and  hasten  maturity  of  the  fruit 
appears  to  be  necessary  with  Viniferas  on  account  of  their  vigorous  growth. 
The  usual  practice  is  to  remove  all  suckers  and  the  ends  of  bearing  canes 
beyond  the  last  bunches  of  fruit.  Summer  pruning  should  be  carefully  done 
to  not  expose  the  fruit  as  sunscald  might  result.  No  definite  system  is 
adopted  for  this  work,  nor  is  its  effect  upon  growth  and  production  at  all 
well  understood. 

Winter  Protection  of  Vines. 

The  tender  Viniferas,  not  being  capable  of  withstanding  low  tempera- 
tures, require  covering  to  guard  against  injury  or  loss  during  the  winter. 
Not  all  varieties  are  affected  by  the  same  temperature,  but  as  all  suffer  in 
occasional  seasons,  covering  becomes  necessary. 

Some  of  the  so-called  American  varieties,  which  are  crosses  between 
American  and  Vinifera  parents,  although  more  hardy  than  the  latter,  suffer 
from  freezing  in  cold  districts  and  might  be  injured  here  in  times  of  ex- 
tremely low  temperature. 

A  series  of  experiments  has  been  carried  out  to  determine  the  most 
effective  method  and  best  material  to  use  for  covering  grape  vines.  The 
vines  should  be  pruned  and  laid  down,  or  pruned  back  close  to  the  ground 
before  covering.  Vineyard  soil  is  preferable  to  straw  or  litter  to  cover  plants 
with,  and  can  be  put  on  to  the  plants  with  a  plow  or  shovel.  When  the 
plants  are  properly  prepared  they  can  be  readily  covered  by  running  a  twelve 
or  fourteen-inch  plow  along  each  side  of  the  row  and  throwing  the  soil  on  to 
the  vines.  It  will  be  necessary  to  complete  the  operation  with  a  shovel,  as 
thorough  covering  cannot  be  done  with  a  plow.  Plants  pruned  to  the  short 
system  frequently  stand  ten  to  sixteen  inches  above  the  ground  and  necessi- 
tate the  handling  of  considerable  soil  to  completely  cover  them. 

If  exposed  to  the  wind  the  covering  is  liable  to  be  blown  off  and  should 
be  protected  by  a  light  covering  of  straw  or  litter. 

There  are  two  objections  to  the  use  of  straw  for  covering  grape  vines. 
Materials  of  this  character  furnish  agreeable  quarters  for  rodents  which 
frequently  injure  the  vines  by  gnawing  at  the  body  or  roots.  It  frequently 
begins  to  decay  in  early  spring  and  heats  before  the  proper  time  for  it  to  be 
removed.  Covering  materials  upon  heating  cause  the  buds  and  wood  to  be 
killed  or  badly  weakened. 

Grape  vines  should  be  uncovered  when  danger  of  frost  is  past.  Plants 
covered  with  soil  are  frequently  left  in  place  and  the  new  growth  allowed  to 
come  through  it.  The  liability  of  late  frosts  renders  uncovering  hazardous 
before  growth  begins,  and  to  leave  the  plant  covered  causes  new  growth  to 


96  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

be  small  and  weak  underground.  Neither  method  is  entirely  successful,  but 
for  greatest  safety  to  the  vine,  it  is  preferable  to  allow  the  new  growth  to 
come  up  through  a  small  amount  of  soil.  Part  of  the  covering  should  be 
removed  when  severe  weather  is  past,  and  when  the  new  growth  is  well 
advanced,  the  remainder  of  it  can  be  taken  off.  Arms  of  plants  trained  to 
the  horizontal  system  can  be  raised  out  of  the  covering  by  the  time  warm 
weather  ocpurs  while  plants  that  are  laid  down  must  be  uncovered  and  tied 
up  to  the  support  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past  so  the  new  growth  will 
not  be  disturbed  by  a  change  of  position. 

Planting. 

The  distance  of  planting  varies  tremendously.  In  Western  Oregon  our 
plants  are  from  seven  to  eight  feet  apart  and  eight  feet  apart  in  the  row. 
In  Eastern  Oregon  we  find,  with  such  varieties  as  Moore's  Early  and  Dela- 
ware, that  eight  feet  is  ample,  but  most  of  the  other  American  varieties 
require  about  ten  feet  in  the  row.  The  Viniferas  are  generally  planted  about 
ten  or  twelve  feet  apart. 

Insects. 

While  insects  have  not  become  a  menace  to  the  grape  industry,  there 
are  a  few  which  I  would  call  your  attention  to. 

The  grape  leaf  mite  has  been  reported  in  one  valley  of  the  State,  and 
while  it  makes  the  leaves  conspicuous  it  does  not  seem  to  cause  any 
serious  damage.  No  opportunity  has  been  given  the  Experiment  Station 
for  experiments  with  control  of  this  mite,  but  we  believe  that  lime-sulphur 
applied  in  the  spring  when  the  buds  swell  should  be  effective. 

The  branch  and  twig  borer  which  attacks  a  variety  of  fruits  also  at  times 
attacks  this  fruit. 

The  shot-hole  borer  has  also  at  times  been  troublesome.  The  treatment 
for  these  pests  here  is  the  same  as  generally  recommended  elsewhere. 

Diseases. 

There  are  a  number  of  diseases  which  prove  troublesome,  mildew  being 
the  worst.  In  fact,  mildew  is  so  bad  in  some  sections  that  it  will  probably 
never  be  controlled  on  certain  varieties  of  the  Vinifera  grapes.  In  other 
sections,  however,  control  is  fairly  easy  with  dry  sulphur  applied  intelli- 
gently. 

Another  disease  which  is  very  bad  at  times  is  the  crown  gall  or  black 
knot  of  the  grape.  In  some  localities  it  has  become  so  serious  as  to  cause 
considerable  loss  to  our  growers.  A  discussion  of  this  disease  is  not  neces- 
sary at  this  time,  as  it  is  very  well  known  and  has  been  splendidly  described 
in  much  of  our  literature  and  bulletins  on  plant  pathology. 

Marketing. 

The  Vinifera  or  California  grapes  are  marketed  in  four-basket  crates, 
each  basket  holding  approximately  five  pounds  of  fruit.  This  is  a  very 
acceptable  package  on  our  market  and  meets  with  ready  sale  generally 
bringing  about  $1.00  and  $1.25  a  crate  to  the  grower.  However,  much  inferior 
fruit  sells  for  less. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  97 

The  American  grapes  are  nearly  all  marketed  in  Climax  baskets. 

Some  attempt  has  been  made  to  manufacture  juice,  but  most  of  this 
juice,  while  pronounced  by  some  as  of  fair  quality,  has  usually  been  of  rather 
low  grade.  In  a  neighboring  state,  a  juice  of  high-grade  has  been  manu- 
factured of  Worden  grapes.  There  is  no  reason  why  some  sections  could 
not  produce  grapes  in  large  enough  quantities  to  supply  a  juicf  ctory.  It 
seems  to  us  that  it  would  be  a  good  proposition  for  some  of  ,ur  Eastern 
juice  manufacturers  to  establish  a  branch  factory  to  take  charge  of  the  local 
distribution  of  grapes. 


GRAPE  GROWING  IN  NEW  MEXICO. 

By  PROF.  FABIAN  GARCIA, 
Director  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  State  College,  New  Mexico. 

New  Mexico  has  a  history  which  is  probably  not  surpassed  in  antiquity 
and  interest  by  that  of  any  other  State.  Some  of  the  more  interesting 
features  of  the  early  history  are  the  peculiar  Pueblo  and  Aztec  civilizations, 
remains  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  ruins  in  many  parts  of  the  State; 
the  antiquity  of  the  State  under  the  old  Spanish  rule,  for  New  Mexico  was 
the  first  of  the  states  to  be  occupied  and  governed  by  a  European  people; 
the  overthrow  of  the  Spanish  rule  and  the  Mexican  form  of  government 
from  1820  to  1848;  the  peculiar  circumstances  under  which  this  section 
became  a  part  of  the  United  States.  Its  salubrious  climate;  its  large  grazing 
prairies;  the  picturesque  mountain  ranges  traversing  the  central  and  western 
parts  of  the  State,  and  the  fertile  irrigated  valleys  dotted  here  and  there 
with  orchards  and  vineyards  add  materially  to  the  interest  of  the  State. 

However,  in  searching  for  information  relative  to  the  early  horticultural 
development  in  the  State,  the  investigator  finds  it  no  easy  task  to  get  reliable 
data  on  the  subject.  In  all  of  our  histories  we  find  the  records  of  different 
political  events  that  have  taken  place  since  New  Mexico  was  discovered  by 
the  Spaniards,  but  for  some  reason  or  other  the  historians  have  failed  to 
record  any  agricultural  or  horticultural  data.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that 
for  one  or  two  hundred  years  after  the  Spaniards  discovered  this  land  there 
was  little  or  no  effort  made  in  the  growing  of  fruits  of  any  kind.  Prior  to 
1880  it  is  found  that  there  was  little  progress  made  in  the  horticulture  of 
the  State.  From  1750  to  1800  it  is  recorded  that  the  New  Mexico  industries 
consisted  largely  of  barter,  stock  raising,  and  a  limited  growing  of  farm 
crops.  About  this  period  the  Spaniards  made  a  slight  beginning  in  the  grow- 
ing of  inferior  varieties  of  fruits  for  home  use.  From  about  1822  to  1845, 
during  the  Mexican  rule,  New  Mexico  started  to  develop  its  agriculture 
somewhat  more  rapidly  than  it  had  in  the  past.  In  1823  the  value  of  the 
agricultural  and  horticultural  exports,  mostly  to  Chihuahua,  amounted  to 
about  $12,000,  while  in  1845  they  had  increased  to  about  $450,000.  While 
these  exports  were  mostly  of  agricultural  crops  and  live  stock,  it  is  perhaps 
safe  to  conjecture  that  as  other  branches  of  agriculture  developed,  fruit 
growing  must  have  started  to  develop  also,  though  perhaps  in  a  smaller  pro- 


98  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

portion  on  account  of  the  perishable  nature  of  the  products  and  the  long 
distances  to  large  markets. 

Another  factor,  which  no  doubt  was  responsible  to  some  degree  for 
fruit  growing  not  coming  to  the  front  more  in  the  early  history  of  the  State, 
was  the  lack  of  interest  and  inclination  of  the  Spaniards  and  Mexicans  for 
this  line  of  agriculture.  The  people  of  both  of  these  two  races  were  not 
particu'arly  horticulturally  inclined.  However,  these  people  had  some  knowl- 
edge and  training  in  viticulture  and  the  grape  was  probably  the  most 
popular  fruit  among  the  early  settlers  in  the  valleys. 

American  Grapes. 

The  American  grapes  may  be  grown  in  almost  all  of  the  irrigated  dis- 
tricts of  the  State.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  hardier  and  more  resistant  to  the 
cold  than  the  European  varieties.  The  American  grapes  are  to  be  found 
growing  mostly  in  the  higher  and  cooler  districts  of  the  State.  In  the  lower 
and  warmer  valleys,  while  they  grow  well,  they  are  not  grown  nearly  so 
much  as  the  European  grapes  nor  are  they  so  popular. 

There  are  only  small  vineyards  to  be  found  and  these  are  usually  in 
home  fruit  plantations.  As  a  rule,  these  small  vineyards  are  composed  of  a 
number  of  varieties,  such  as  Ives,  Moore's  Early,  Delaware,  Niagara,  and 
Concord.  Some  of  these  American  grapes  are  also  used  for  arbors,  as  some 
of  them  seem  to  be  well  adapted  for  such  purposes.  These  varieties,  being 
hardy,  do  not  require  any  winter  protection.  The  method  of  growing  them 
is  practically  the  same  as  that  used  in  grape  growing  districts  in  Missouri 
and  New  York. 

They  are  trained  on  different  kinds  of  trellises  and  pruned  according  to 
Eastern  methods. 

European    Grapes. 

The  European  grapes  are  not  nearly  so  hardy  as  the  American  varieties 
and  are  more  or  less  subject  to  winter  injury.  While  they  may  be  grown 
in  the  higher  and  cooler  districts  in  the  State,  the  large  vineyards  are  to  be 
found  in  the  lower  and  warmer  valleys.  For  best  results  they  prefer  warm 
conditions  and  a  more  or  less  mild  winter.  The  European  grape  is,  at  the 
present,  the  commercial  grape  in  New  Mexico.  It  is  grown,  trained  and 
pruned  in  practically  the  same  way  as  in  California. 

Grape   Growers. 

From  the  early  history  of  grape  growing  in  New  Mexico  it  is  found  that 
this  industry  has  been  carried  on  by  the  Mexican  or  native  farmer.  The 
American  farmers  do  not  seem  to  care  to  follow  grape  growing  on  any  kind 
of  a  commercial  scale.  Even  at  the  present  time  the  larger  vineyards  in 
the  different  parts  of  the  State  are  owned  and  managed  by  the  Mexican 
farmers. 

The    Rio    Grande    Valley. 

The  Rio  Grande  Valley  has  been  the  agricultural  backbone  of  New 
Mexico  from  its  early  history.  It  has  produced  food  for  a  large  per  cent  of 
the  people  who  have  controlled  and  ruled  the  State  from  time  to  time.  The 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  99 

southern  part  of  the  Rio  Grande^  Valley,  particularly  the  Mesilla  Valley,  has 
been  noted  for  its  fine  fruit,  especially  the  Mission  grape.  The  Mesilla  Val- 
ley is  one  of  the  largest  irrigated  districts  in  New  Mexico  and  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  Mexican  and  the  early  part  of  the  American  rule  the  Mexi- 
cans made  an  effort  to  develop  the  grape-growing  industry.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  history  of  grape  growing  in  New  Mexico  may  be  reduced  to  the 
history  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley. 

During  the  50's  and  60's  much  interest  was  manifested  in  the  cultivation 
of  this  crop,  since  this  fruit  could  be  manufactured  into  wine  and  dried  into 
raisins.  The  wine  was  sought  after  quite  extensively  by  the  United  States 
soldiers  who  furnished  a  market  for  this  product.  In  1866  Judge  J.  G.  Knapp, 
a  resident  of  Mesilla,  the  county  seat  of  Dona  Ana  County,  in  the  early  60's 
wrote  as  follows:  "Two  kinds  of  grapes  were  grown,  the  El  Paso  (Mission) 
and  the  Muscatel.  Both  are  sweet  grapes.  The  origin  of  these  grapes  is 
shrouded  in  mystery.  No  trace  of  them  can  be  found  beyond  El  Paso  (now 
Cuidad  Juarez,  Mexico),  though  they  are  of  Asiatic  origin  and  probably 
were  produced  from  seed  of  dried  grapes  from  Spain  or  even  further  east, 
planted  by  some  of  the  Spanish  missionaries." 

In  1868  one  of  the  first  large  vineyards  was  started  by  Mr.  T.  J.  Bull 
of  Mesilla.  Others  were  started  by  Messrs.  Thomas  Casad,  Ramon  Gonzales, 
Rafael  Ruelas  and  Rafael  Bermudes.  These  men  played  quite  a  part  in  the 
early  development  of  grape  growing  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  From  1880, 
after  the  A.  T.  &  S.  F.  Railroad  came  through,  the  grape  industry  developed 
very  fast,  as  there  were  facilities  for  shipping  the  grapes  to  outside  markets. 

Other  Districts. 

There  are  in  New  Mexico  a  number  of  districts  in  which  the  Vitis  vini- 
fera  grape  does  well.  As  has  already  been  stated,  these  grapes  prefer  the 
lower  and  warmer  valleys.  The  best  grape  growing  districts  are  to  be  found 
in  the  lower  and  warmer  valleys  at  altitudes  ranging  from  3000  to  6000  feet, 
the  Rio  Grande  Valley  being  the  principal  and  largest  grape  growing  district. 
Large  plantations  are  also  found  in  the  Pecos  Valley,  Tularosa  Basin,  in  the 
Mimbres  Valley,  and  on  a  smaller  scale  around  Santa  Fe  and  Las  Vegas. 
Vitis  vinifera  is  the  grape  that  has  been  grown  and  is  being  grown  for  com- 
mercial purposes  in  New  Mexico. 

Propagation. 

The  propagation,  soil,  irrigation,  pruning,  etc.,  in  this  paper  refer  to  the 
Vitis  vinifera  grape.  The  New  Mexico  grape  grower  propagates  his  vines 
by  cuttings.  These  cuttings  may  be  taken  in  the  fall,  winter  or  at  the  time 
when  the  vineyard  is  being  pruned.  If  taken  in  the  fall  or  winter,  the  cut- 
tings are  hilled  in  until  spring.  If  taken  in  the  spring,  when  the  vineyard 
is  being  pruned,  the  cuttings  are  then  placed  in  the  field  where  the  vines 
are  to  grow.  Hardly  ever  are  the  cuttings  taken  and  rooted  in  nursery  rows 
the  first  year.  This  method  has  been  used  by  all  of  our  native  grape 
growers  for  many  years  and  if  the  work  is  properly  done  and  the  cuttings 
are  well  taken  care  of  during  the  summer  it  is  surprising  how  large  a  per- 
centage of  them  will  root.  As  a  rule,  if  the  vineyard  is  propagated  in  this 
way,  it  comes  into  bearing  about  one  year  earlier  than  if  the  cuttings  are 


100  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

first  rooted  in  nursery  rows.  The  cuttings  are  made  about  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  in  length.  Two  cuttings,  as  a  rule,  are  placed  in  each  hole  in  the 
field.  Most  of  the  old  time  grape  growers  bend  the  lower  end  of  the  cutting 
almost  at  right  angles  when  placed  in  the  hole.  Immediately  after  the  cut- 
tings are  planted  they  are  irrigated.  If  the  ground  cracks  around  the  cut- 
tings it  is  customary  to  go  over  the  field  and  throw  a  little  dirt  around  them. 
Sometimes  a  second  irrigation  is  given,  which  tends  to  prevent  the  cracking 
of  the  soil.  This  method  of  propagation  is  followed  almost  altogether  by  the 
Spanish-American  vineyardists.  The  American  grape  growers,  as  a  rule, 
prefer  to  use  the  rooted  cuttings  which  they  can  purchase  from  California 
nurseries. 

Soils. 

The  European  grape  is  quite  cosmopolitan  in  its  soil  requirements.  The 
best  all-round  soil,  however,  for  European  grapes  is  a  sandy  to  a  sandy 
loam.  This  grape  makes  too  rank  a  growth  and  is  liable  to  ripen  its  fruit 
more  or  less  irregularly  and  later  when  grown  on  heavy  adobe  soils.  A 
soil  that  may  be  considered  almost  too  sandy  for  any  other  fruit  or  vegetable 
may  be  used  very  satisfactorily  for  the  Vinifera  grape.  The  sandy  to  sandy 
loam  will  produce,  other  things  remaining  favorable,  a  better,  earlier,  sweeter 
and  larger  berry  and  the  bunches  will  ripen  more  uniformly  than  on  the 
heavy  adobe  soil.  Wet  or  alkaline  soils  are  not  considered  desirable  for 
grapes.  Soils  which  have  the  water  table  close  to  the  surface  should  be 
avoided  in  grape  culture. 

Distance  to  Plant. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  the  grape  growers  as  to  the 
best  distance  between  the  vines,  and  this  distance  depends,  to  some  degree, 
on  the  variety,  but  more  particularly  on  the  kind  of  soil.  If  the  soil  is  a 
sandy  to  a  sandy  loam  the  distance  between  the  vines  is  less  than  when  a 
heavy  adobe  soil  is  used. 

When  the  stump  system  of  training  the  vines  and  heavy  pruning  are 
practised,  and  if  a  light  soil  is  used,  the  distance  may  vary  from  seven  by 
seven  to  ten  by  ten.  Most  of  the  vineyards  are  planted  seven  by  seven  or 
eight  by  eight  feet  apart. 

Staking  the  Vines. 

It  is  a  good  practice,  after  the  first  season's  growth,  to  tie  the  small  vine 
to  the  stakes  driven  down  in  the  soil  close  to  the  plants.  The  stakes  may  be 
made  out  of  any  durable  wood  and  vary  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet 
in  length.  The  vines  are  kept  tied  to  these  stakes  until  the  stump  has  been 
formed  which  is  from  two  to  three  seasons.  The  staking  of  vines  encourages 
a  more  upright  and  straighter  stem  or  stump. 

Cultivation. 

The  cultivation  of  the  New  Mexico  vineyard  consists  of  one  plowing  in 
the  fall  and  one  in  the  early  spring  before  the  vines  are  trimmed,  foFowed  by 
shallow  surface  cultivations  to  keep  down  the  weeds  and  to  keep  more  or  less 
of  a  soil  mulch.  The  summer  surface  cultivations  will  vary  from  four  to  six, 
depending  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  season.  The  heavier  the  soil, 
as  a  rule,  the  more  cultivations  and  the  harder  it  is  to  keep  a  good  soil  mulch 
The  weeds  are  also  worse  on  the  heavy  adobe  soil. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PT< PLICATION-  .•    .  -  •    .  ;   ..     101 

Irrigation. 

The  grape  is  one  of  the  most  drought-resisting  fruits  grown  in  New 
Mexico.  On  sandy  soil  from  three  to  four  irrigations  during  the  season  will  be 
enough  to  mature  the  crop.  It  is  not  a  good  practice  to  irrigate  late.  It  tends 
to  produce  too  rank  a  growth  of  canes  and  retard  the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 
During  the  winter,  if  it  is  very  dry,  it  is  advisable  to  irrigate  the  vineyard 
once.  This  may  be  done  just  before  or  immediately  after  the  vines  are  hilled 
up.  The  first  irrigation  in  the  spring  is  given  just  immediately  after  the 
pruning  is  done.  The  frequency  of  the  subsequent  irrigations  will  vary 
somewhat  according  to  the  nature  of  the  season  and  the  kind  of  soil.  As  a 
rule  these  irrigations  are  given  from  four  to  six  weeks  apart.  The  last  irriga- 
tion is  usually  given  in  the  early  part  of  August.  The  flooding  system  is 
practiced  in  the  irrigation  of  grapes. 

Winter  Protection. 

The  vinifera  grape  in  New  Mexico  is  somewhat  tender  and  is  subject 
to  winter  injury.  It  is  necessary  to  cover  the  vines  up  every  winter.  While 
the  vines  may  not  be  injured  every  year,  the  vineyardist  cannot  tell  just  when 
the  vines  may  be  winter  killed  and  in  order  to  be  on  the  safe  side  it  is  advis- 
able to  cover  them  up  every  year.  If  the  winter  is  very  moist,  and  if  it  rains 
or  snows  considerably,  the  chances  are  that  there  will  be  little  or  no  winter 
injury  to  the  vines.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  if  it  happens  to  be  a  dry 
winter  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  canes  will  be  killed  back. 

The  winter  protection  of  the  vines  consists  in  drawing  the  dirt  up  to  the 
vines  and  building  a  mound  to  the  proper  height.  If  the  soil  is  quite  sandy 
it  is  advisable  to  irrigate  before  covering.  If  it  happens  to  be  a  pretty  heavy 
soil,  it  is  better  to  do  the  irrigating  after  the  covering  of  the  vines.  Early 
in  the  spring  the  dirt  is  removed  from  the  vines  by  first  plowing  as  much  of 
it  away  as  possible  and  then  using  a  hoe  or  shovel  to  remove  what  is  left. 

It  is  also  advisable  to  uncover  the  vines  early  before  they  bud  out  and  the 
base  buds  have  started  to  swell.  If  the  uncovering  of  the  vines  is  delayed 
until  the  season  begins  to  warm  up,  the  base  buds  will  swell  so  much  that 
when  the  soil  is  removed  they  are  quite  likely  to  be  injured.  It  is  customary 
to  uncover  the  vines  about  a  month  before  pruning. 

Pruning. 

The  method  generally  practiced  by  the  vinifera  grape  growers  is  the  one 
commonly  known  as  pruning  to  a  stump.  In  the  spring,  the  canes  are  cut 
back  very  severely,  leaving  from  two  or  three  buds.  This  operation  is  also 
delayed  just  as  late  as  possible  in  the  spring.  It  is  not  a  good  practice  to 
prune  early,  because  the  earlier  the  vines  are  pruned  the  more  liable  they 
are  to  be  injured  by  the  late  spring  frost. 

Insects  and   Diseases. 

At  the  present  time  the  vineyards  have  been  comparatively  free  from 
serious  pests  and  diseases.  The  worst  insect  pest  that  the  vineyardist  has  to 
deal  with  is  the  grape  leaf  hopper,  wrhich  sometimes  causes  considerable 
trouble.  This,  however,  can  be  eradicated  by  the  proper  use  of  the  "Black 
Leaf  40"  solution,  together  with  the  use  of  the  hopper-doser. 


102     -  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

During  recent  years  in  some  of  the  grape  growing  districts  some  trouble 
has  been  experienced  from  the  grape  crown-gall.  This  disease  seems  to 
attack  some  varieties  more  than  others.  Fortunately  the  better  commercial 
varieties  are  somewhat  resistant  to  it  and  those  that  are  attacked  by  this  pest 
are  not  materially  injured. 

Varieties. 

The  old  El  Paso  or  Mission  grape  is  the  one  that  has  been  grown  ever 
since  grapes  were  first  planted  in  New  Mexico.  There  are  more  vineyards  of 
the  Mission  than  of  any  other  grape.  This  variety  has  been  quite  popular 
throughout  New  Mexico,  as  well  as  throughout  Texas  and  Louisiana.  It  is  a 
very  hardy  variety,  and  withstands  considerable  drought,  neglect  and  cold. 
It  is  a  good  bearer  and  of  fairly  good  quality. 

During  more  recent  years  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  has  displaced  many 
of  the  Mission  vineyards.  This  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  that  is  being 
grown  at  the  present  time.  It  begins  to  ripen  about  the  15th  of  August, 
about  ten  days  earlier  than  the  Mission.  The  Black  Cornichon,  Purple 
Damascus,  Flame  Tokay  and  Black  Ferarra  are  varieties  that  are  being 
planted  quite  extensively  in  the  State.  The  Thompson  Seedless  and  Chasselas 
are  becoming  popular  early  varieties. 

Use. 

Grape  growing  does  not  compare  in  importance  with  apple,  pear  or  peach 
growing.  Most  of  the  grapes  that  are  raised  are  shipped  locally  in  the  State, 
some  are  shipped  to  Colorado,  to  Oklahoma,  to  Texas  and  to  Louisiana.  A 
large  per  cent  of  the  grapes  grown  by  the  native  farmers  is  converted  into 
wine. 

April  2,  1915. 


GRAPE  GROWING  IN  UTAH. 

By  A.  B.  BALLANTYNE, 

Provo,  Utah. 


General   Conditions. 

Lying  mostly  within  the  Great  Basin,  Utah,  as  a  whole,  possesses  the 
climatic  characteristics  of  this  vast  semi-arid  region.  The  warm  usually 
dry  sunny  days  are  followed  by  cool  crisp  nights,  the  total  daily  range  of 
temperature  at  almost  any  season  being  very  great. 

In  surveying  the  climate  of  this  State  with  reference  to  the  grape 
industry,  cognizance  must  be  taken  of  the  two  geographical  areas  into  which 
it  is  divided — The  Great  Basin  region  lying  west  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains 
and  north  of  the  Pine  Valley  Mountains  at  the  southern  end  of  the  State,  and 
the  Colorado  River  Drainage  Basin  including  the  eastern  and  extreme  south- 
ern portions.  The  southern  portion  of  this  latter  basin  is  commonly  called 
Utah's  Dixie  and  includes  that  section  lying  around  St.  George.  It  is  here 
that  most  of  the  grapes  are  grown. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  103 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  Great  Basin  section  is  49.3°;  that 
of  the  sections  most  favorably  situated  for  grape  production  49.6°  to  52.2°. 
Winter  temperatures  of  10°  to  15°  below  zero  and  summer  temperatures  of 
85°  to  100°  are  common. 

In  the  St.  George  district  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  53.9°  —  4°  the 
'owest  and  116°  the  highest  temperatures  recorded  in  thirty  years.  The 
common  low  winter  temperatures  from  15°  to  32°  occur  through  December 
and  early  January,  and  normally  occur  only  during  the  early  morning  hours, 
the  day  temperatures  nearly  always  registering  35°  or  above. 

The  St.  George  district  is  not  only  warmer  but  also  has  a  growing 
season  three  to  four  weeks  longer  than  Bear  River,  Salt  and  Utah  Lake 
Valleys  of  the  Great  Basin  enjoy. 

The  rainfall  of  these  valleys  ranges  from  14  to  19  inches,  that  of  the 
St.  George  district  is  8.3  inches,  so  that  in  each  section  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary to  mature  crops  properly. 

The  above  mentioned  valleys  range  from  eight  to  eighteen  miles  in 
width,  their  lengths  from  thirty  to  sixty  miles  and  have  their  long  axis  in  a 
north  and  south  line.  They  are  typical  of  the  valleys  lying  within  the  Great 
Basin  and  like  many  of  the  others  were  once  occupied  by  prehistoric  Lake 
Bonneville.  The  benches  left  by  this  lake  as  it  receded  make  up  the  most 
valuable  fruit  lands,  the  soils  ranging  through  coarse  and  fine  gravels,  sands 
and  loams  and  clay  loams,  with  almost  every  type  of  subsoil. 

The  St.  George  district  is  made  up  of  a  low  broken  valley  with  irregular 
benches  and  bottom  land.  The  soils  are  made  up  of  decomposed  granites, 
sandstones  and  basalt  with  some  river  silts — all  more  or  less  impregnated 
with  gypsum  and  white  alkali. 

The  Mormon  pioneers  of  1847  found  clear  streams  issuing  from  the 
Wasatch  Range  and  these  they  used  to  irrigate  their  crops.  In  time  these 
streams  have  been  made  to  irrigate  practically  all  of  the  valleys  lying 
immediately  at  the  foot  of  this  range,  though  the  valleys  to  the  westward 
have  less  water  and  a  great  proportion  of  their  lands  will  probably  never  be 
irrigated. 

Likewise  the  Mormon  pioneers  of  1862  found  a  few  small  streams  and 
springs  in  Utah's  Dixie  and  while  these  have  been  developed  wonderfully 
there  is  still  water  enough  for  greater  areas  of  land.  Their  chief  source  is 
the  Rio  Virgin  River  which  sometimes  carries  half  its  weight  of  silt. 

The  pioneers  of  1847  brought  with  them  the  seeds  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables and  it  is  probable  that  grape  seeds  were  among  them.  The  first 
grapes  brought  into  Utah's  Dixie  were  from  California  and  arrived  some 
time  before  1870.  Here  the  industrious  pioneers  gave  the  grapes  more  atten- 
tion than  they  received  in  the  north,  probably  because  they  thrived  better 
and  because  the  fruit  and  its  products  found  ready  sale  in  the  northern 
settlements. 

Since  those  early  days  the  Utah  grape  market  has  been  captured  by  the 
California  grower,  mainly  because  the  local  supply  was  inadequate  and 
because  the  fruit  was  presented  in  a  more  attractive  form  and  cheaper  than 
it  could  be  secured  by  wagon  and  rail  from  the  distant  Dixie  settlements. 
California  ships  in,  according  to  the  most  reliable  estimates,  about  thirty 
carloads  (900  crates  to  the  car)  of  Vinifera  grapes  in  four-basket  twenty- 
pound  crates.  About  twenty  thousand  eight-pound  baskets  of  Concords  are 


104  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

shipped  in  from  the  East,  the  local  vineyards  supplying  our  markets  with 
about  thirty-five  thousand  of  the  same  sized  baskets. 

With  the  increase  in  acreage  the  problem  of  the  Dixie  grower  has  been 
to  find  a  suitable  market  for  his  grapes.  The  district  as  a  whole  is  seventy 
to  eighty  miles  from  the  nearest  railroad  point  and,  with  poor  roads,  the 
placing  of  grapes  on  the  Salt  Lake  market  in  a  condition  to  compete  with 
the  California  grapes  is  almost  beyond  possibility.  So  that  what  little  is 
marketed  fresh  is  usually  hauled  to  the  p^arby  mining  camps;  the  bulk  of 
the  crop  being  made  into  raisins. 

Statistics   of   Crop. 

The  1910  census  gave  a  total  of  204,445  vines  in  Utah  and  of  these 
124,827  were  in  the  St.  George  district.  At  700  vines  per  acre  the  total 
acreage  at  that  time  was  292  acres.  The  yield  was  given  as  1,576,363  pounds 
and  of  this  985,400  pounds  were  accredited  to  the  St.  George  district.  The 
average  yield  for  the  State  was  then  7.7  pounds;  for  the  Great  Basin  section 
7.3  pounds  and  for  St.  George  district  slightly  under  8  pounds  per  vine.  This 
census  also  shows  that  eight  of  the  twenty-se^en  counties  grew  no  grapes 
at  all. 

Since  1910  several  large  Concord  vineyards  have  been  planted  so  that 
the  total  area  for  the  northern  part  is  about  275  acres  and  for  the  St.  George 
district  about  185  acres  all  told.  In  the  north  about  three-fourths  of  the 
acreage  is  Concord  or  other  varieties  of  that  type,  the  remainder  Vinifera 
varieties  mostly  Muscat,  In  the  St.  George  section  probably  nine-tenths  of 
the  grapes  are  Vinifera. 

Treatment  of  the  Soil. 

Planting.  Very  often  in  the  past  the  sites  chosen  for  grapes  have  been 
on  gravelly  slopes,  where  proper  care  in  preparing  the  soil  and  in  planting 
were  either  difficult  to  give  or  were  lacking.  Partial  or  total  failure  came  in 
many  instances,  thus  discouraging  the  industry.  The  general  practice  in 
later  years  has  been  to  plow  the  land  deeply  in  the  fall,  thoroughly  pulverize 
it  in  the  spring  and  after  marking  the  rows  each  way  to  plow  the  furrows 
with  the  slope  of  the  land.  From  this  point  the  practice  differs,  some  men 
placing  the  stakes  before  planting  the  vines,  others  planting  the  vines,  the 
usual  care  in  heeling  in  and  using  the  proper  soil  being  exercised,  then  the 
soil  is  hilled  around  the  plant  and  a  small  irrigating  stream  turned  in  at  the 
head  of  the  row  and  allowed  to  soak  the  soil  about  the  newly  set  plants. 

After  the  soil  has  dried  sufficiently  in  the  furrow,  it  is  plowed  in  and 
the  soil  cultivated  at  intervals  to  conserve  the  moisture  and  to  keep  the 
weeds  down.  Where  the  stakes  are  not  set  before  planting  they  are  usually 
left  until  the  second  or  third  year. 

Irrigation.  The  first  year  two  to  five  irrigations  are  required — depending 
upon  the  season  and  locality.  In  all  of  the  vineyards  visited  by  the  writer 
(most  of  those  within  the  State),  two  irrigation  furrows  for  each  row  are 
used.  In  the  north  on  moderately  open  soils  one  or  two  irrigations  will 
normally  be  sufficient  to  mature  the  crop  and  enable  the  vine  to  prepare  for 
winter.  However,  some  growers  have  found  that  more  water  applied  will 
produce  larger  grapes,  consequently  a  great  yield.  This  is  true  of  soils  with 
a  shallow  surface  soil  and  a  loose  gravelly  subsoil.  These  grapes  are  not  so 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  105 

sweet,  well-flavored  or  firm  or  highly  colored  as  those  grown  with  less  water. 
The  amount  of  water  applied  will  vary  from  two  to  six  acre  inches,  depend- 
ing upon  the  subsoil. 

If  one  irrigation  is  given  it  is  applied  about  two  weeks  before  the  fruit 
ripens.  If  the  fall  is  a  dry  one,  another  irrigation  is  given  after  the  leaves 
fall. 

In  the  St.  George  district  if  clean  culture  is  practised,  three  irrigations 
per  year  will  be  ample,  unless  extremely  hot  dry  winds  prevail  for  protracted 
periods,  or  the  fall,  winter  and  spring  are  unusually  dry,  in  which  event 
another  irrigation  will  be  necessary  in  February  or  March.  These  irrigations 
are  applied  at  blooming  time,  one  or  two  weeks  before  ripening  and  after  the 
leaves  fall. 

Drainage.  In  most  Utah  sections,  the  vineyards  are  so  located  that 
artificial  drainage  is  not  necessary.  In  one  section,  however,  it  has  been 
found  that  on  deep,  sandy  soil  where  grapes  have  grown  for  five  or  six  years, 
that  their  roots  have  gone  down  over  eight  feet.  Under  these  conditions  it 
can  be  seen  that  ordinary  drainage  measures  would  not  save  a  vineyard, 
unless  the  drains  were  placed  very  deep. 

Fertilization.  No  fixed  or  universal  system  of  manuring  has  been 
adopted,  though  many  receive  barnyard  manure  at  irregular  intervals.  This 
is  true  in  parts  of  the  St.  George  district,  especially  where  light  sandy  soils 
are  found.  Here  it  has  been  found,  especially  on  Thompson  Seedless,  that 
by  leaving  two  or  more  canes  the  vines  can  be  manured  heavily  and  large 
quantities  of  grapes  will  be  produced  without  an  excessive  wood  growth. 

Alfalfa,  crimson  clover,  sweet  clover  and  rarely  hairy  vetches  are  the 
green  manures  used. 

Treatment  of  the  Vine. 

The  Concord  is  the  variety  mostly  grown  in  the  north,  while  small  areas 
are  devoted  to  the  Black  Pearl,  Sweetwater,  the  various  Muscats,  Thompson 
Seedless,  Flame  Tokay,  Black  Cornichon,  Malaga  and  Feher  Szagos  about  in 
the  order  named. 

In  a  few  instances  the  vines  have  been  propagated  by  cuttings.  Most 
of  them,  however,  have  been  imported. 

Pruning.  Throughout  the  State  most  of  the  pruning  is  done  in  the 
spring,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  grower  and  to  some  extent  on  the 
variety.  The  largest  growers  in  the  north  prune  their  Concords  to  fifteen 
or  twenty  spurs  of  three  buds  each.  Other  growers  advocate  the  leaving 
of  more  wood  and  where  the  soil  is  rich  it  unquestionably  gives  greater 
yields  with  but  slight  difference  in  the  size  of  the  berry. 

About  half  of  the  vines  in  the  north  are  trained  on  trellises,  the  rest 
to  a  low  stump  form  barely  a  foot  above  the  soil. 

In  the  St.  George  district,  practically  all  of  the  vines  are  trained  to  the 
stump  form,  the  crown  being  one  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet  from 
the  surface.  Here  spurs  of  two  or  three  buds  are  left  and  as  many  as  the 
vigor  of  the  vine  will  justify. 

In  a  co-operative  pruning  experiment  at  St.  George,  the  writer  increased 
the  yield  of  Thompson  Seedless  grapes  from  12  to  24,  27,  and  29  pounds  per 
vine  by  leaving  two,  four  and  six  canes  of  10  buds  each  on  the  vines  in 
addition  to  the  spurs  that  would  normally  be  left. 


106  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

In  the  same  experiment,  summer  pruning  was  found  to  reduce  the  crop, 
the  earlier  prunings  reducing  it  more  than  the  latter  ones.  In  that  section 
this  practice  is  followed  to  some  extent  to  enable  late  cultivations  to  be 
given  without  tearing  the  vines. 

Diseases.  The  only  serious  diseases  we  have  are  Black  Knot  and 
Powdery  Mildew  or  Oidium.  The  first  of  course  is  not  as  yet  controlled 
other  than  by  removing  affected  vines,  the  latter  by  the  usual  applications 
of  sulphur,  during  the  summer. 

Frost.  In  the  northern  section,  Vinifera  grapes  are  frozen  down  about 
every  third  or  fourth  winter  unless  they  are  given  special  protection.  Oc- 
casionally earl?/  fall  frosts  catch  part,  rarely  all,  of  the  crop. 

Winter  killing  by  frost  sometimes  occurs  in  "Dixie"  on  the  low,  damp 
soils  where  especial  care  is  not  taken  to  ripen  the  wood.  Rarely  the  early 
fall  frosts  injure  the  crop,  especially  of  the  late  varieties  like  the  Emperor. 

Pests.  Phylloxera  as  yet  has  not  been  reported  from  any  section.  The 
grape  moth  is  present  in  some  parts  of  the  St.  George  district,  otherwise  the 
only  serious  pest  is  the  grape  leaf  hopper  Typhlocyba  comes  (Say)  var. 
Coloradensis,  mainly.  Considerable  loss  has  occurred  from  its  presence  in 
the  various  cycles.  They  are  readily  controlled  by  spraying  with  nicotine 
sulphate  solution  ("Black  Leaf  40")  strength  1-1200,  just  before  the  oldest 
nymphs  of  the  first  brood  moult  for  the  last  time.  At  the  Southern  Utah 
Experiment  Farm  it  cost  $5.59  per  acre  in  1911  and  $2.47  per  acre  in  1912 
to  apply  this  spray. 

Treatment  of  the  Crop. 

In  the  largest  Concord  vineyard  in  the  State,  the  grapes  are  picked 
directly  into  eight-pound  baskets,  which  are  properly  filled  and  faced  at  the 
packing  house.  This  about  represents  the  common  practice.  The  four-basket 
twenty-pound  crate  is  almost  universally  used  for  the  Vinifera  grapes.  These 
are  usually  packed  with  selected  fruit  and  either  sold  on  the  local  market  or 
to  peddlers. 

In  the  St.  George  district  most  of  the  grapes  are  made  into  raisins  and 
are  marketed  in  that  form,  otherwise  the  four-basket  crate  is  much  used  in 
disposing  of  the  fresh  fruit. 

The  manufacture  of  grape  juice  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  only  one  or  two 
firms  attempting  it.  These  are  producing  an  article  equal  in  every  way  to 
the  best  standard  juices. 

The  large  Concord  grape  crops  bring  ten  cents  to  twenty-eight  cents 
per  basket,  the  Vinifera  grapes  four  to  eight  cents  per  pound.  In  Dixie 
the  price  is  one  to  three  cents  per  pound. 

Reviewing  briefly  the  condition  of  the  grape  industry  in  Utah,  we  may 
say  that  it  is  far  from  being  in  a  position  to  supply  the  present  demand  for 
fresh  grapes,  not  mentioning  the  creation  or  a  greater  demand,  or  the 
stimulation  of  the  manufacture  of  grape  juice,  for  the  State's  trade  of  some- 
thing over  18,000  gallons. 

With  her  ideal  sunshine,  soil  and  water,  Utah  should  not  only  be  doing 
these  things,  but  will  be  in  the  near  future,  because  it  will  be  found  profit- 
able. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  107 

GRAPE  GROWING  IN  IMPERIAL  VALLEY. 

By  WALTER  E.  PACKARD, 
El  Centre,  California.     Read  by  Mr.  F.  T.  Swett. 


The  extreme  climatic  conditions  in  Imperial  Valley  constitute  a  natural 
resource  which  makes  possible  the  development  of  a  practical  monopoly  in 
the  production  of  certain  specialties.  The  early  springs,  high  summer  tem- 
peratures, low  humidity  and  abundant  sunshine  favor  the  planting  of  ear!y 
fruits  and  vegetables,  out-of-season  crops  and  special  crops,  such  as  dates, 
which  are  especially  adapted  to  the  particular  conditions  of  this  section. 
Early  table  grapes  hold  an  important  place  in  this  list  of  favored  crops. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  settlement  of  the  valley  much  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  table  grape  industry,  which  promises  unusually  profitable 
returns. 

The  first  commercial  planting  was  made  in  1904  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Corwin. 
The  vineyard,  which  ultimately  consisted  of  fifty-five  acres,  included  twenty 
different  varieties  of  grapes  common  in  California.  The  vineyard  plantings 
rapidly  increased  until  the  total  area  in  vines  in  1910  approximated  1000 
acres.  Since  that  time  the  acreage  has  not  increased  materially,  as  the 
number  of  new  plantings  has  been  about  offset  by  the  acreage  pulled  out. 
In  1914  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  cars  of  grapes  were  shipped  out  of  the 
valley. 

It  seems  strange,  at  first  thought,  that  the  plantings  should  decrease  at 
all  in  a  section  so  generally  favorable  to  the  industry.  A  broad  statement, 
often  made,  that  these  vineyards  which  have  been  dug  up  did  not  pay,  is 
partially  true  but  very  misleading.  Several  contributing  factors  to  the 
failure  of  the  vineyards  to  yield  a  profit  should  be  named  as  the  primary 
causes  of  their  abandonment.  The  vineyards  under  good  management  and 
favorable  conditions  have  proved  to  be  ver>  profitable,  pernaps  more  profit- 
able than  any  other  industry  established  in  the  region  up  to  the  present 
time. 

A  vineyard  to  be  a  success  in  Imperial  Valley  should  be  planted  on  sandy 
or  sandy  loam  soil  free  from  alkali.  Choice  of  unsuitable  soil  in  the  early 
planted  vineyards  has  been  the  main  obstacle  to  the  development  of  a  profit- 
able enterprise  in  certain  cases.  There  are  several  types  of  soil  in  this 
section,  some  being  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
and  others  only  suited  to  the  production  of  field  crops.  Grape  vines  growing 
on  clay  or  clay  loam  soils  produce  an  abundant  vegetative  growth,  a  growth 
which  is  really  remarkable  as  compared  to  the  growth  of  vires  in  other 
parts  of  the  State.  A  one-year-old  cane  will  often  be  as  large  as  a  two- 
year  growth  in  other  sections.  This  vigorous  vegetative  growth  is  quite 
naturally  accompanied  by  a  dense  mass  of  green  leaves,  much  darker  in 
color  than  those  found  on  sandy  soil  with  the  same  variety.  The  grapes 
are  usually  a  darker  green  also,  and  often  lack  the  attractive  amber  color 
desired  in  white  table  grapes.  The  setting  of  first  crop  is  comparatively 
small,  although  the  second  and  third  crops  are  often  quite  large.  Three 
and  four  crop  settings  are  quite  common  with  most  varieties  tried.  The 
grapes  on  these  large  vines  are  usually  later  than  on  the  vines  grown  en 


108  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

sandy  soil  and  the  proportion  of  "water  berries"  is  larger.  On  sandy  or 
sandy  loam  soils  the  vines  are  comparatively  small,  the  leaves  light  green 
and  not  dense,  the  grapes  are  early  and  of  good  quality  and  the  yield  of 
first  crop,  although  not  large,  is  satisfactory.  These  facts  are  quite  evident 
to  any  one  comparing  the  appearance  of  fruit  and  vines  on  different  soil 
types,  either  on  the  same  or  on  different  ranches. 

Many  of  the  early  vineyards  were  planted  on  the  harder  types  of  soil, 
with  consequent  poor  results,  which  discouraged  many  of  the  growers,  some 
of  whom  came  to  the  erroneous  conclusion  that  Imperial  Valley  was  not 
adapted  to  the  production  of  a  good  quality  of  early  table  grapes.  It  can  be 
quite  definitely  said,  therefore,  that  the  best  profits  can  be  made  when 
grapes  are  planted  on  sandy  or  sandy  loam  soils. 

The  production  of  "water  berries,"  which  has  been  a  decidedly  important 
factor  in  the  failure  of  some  vineyards  to  produce  a  satisfactory  profit,  is 
closely  associated  with  the  soil  type,  as  already  suggested.  In  some  cases 
fully  fifty  per  cent  of  the  grapes  had  to  be  discarded  on  account  of  these 
poor  berries.  The  "water  berry"  can  be  described  as  a  soft  bluish  berry 
occurring  in  whole  bunches  or  as  individual  berries  in  a  bunch.  They  are 
semi-transparent  and  have  very  poor  shipping  and  keeping  qualities.  The 
following  observations  have  been  made  in  connection  with  this  undesirable 
condition.  Water  berries  are  found  more  abundant  on  young  than  on  old 
vines.  They  are  much  more  common  on  vines  growing  in  hard  or  medium 
hard  soils  than  on  a  sandy  type.  They  are  usually  found  on  soils  too  dry 
for  successful  vine  growth.  Too  much  water  does  not  seem  to  produce  this 
condition  unless  it  is  applied  just  before  or  during  the  sugaring  period  on 
vines  which  have  previously  been  too  dry. 

Alkali  is  of  course  injurious  and  has  done  some  damage  in  some  of  the 
valley  plantings,  although  as  a  general  rule  the  vineyards  have  been  planted 
on  soils  comparatively  free  from  injurious  salts.  Common  salt  or  sodium 
chloride  is  the  common  so-called  alkali  in  this  section.  The  salts  have  usually 
only  caused  damage  in  small  patches  in  the  vineyards,  and  often  have  done 
no  damage  until  the  vines  are  three  or  four  years  old,  when  the  roots  have 
penetrated  to  some  sub-stratum  containing  more  alkali  than  the  overlying 
soils.  This  spotted  condition  is  characteristic  of  the  occurrence  of  alkali 
here  as  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  Continuous  irrigation  through  furrows 
has  caused  a  concentration  of  alkali  in  the  row  which  has  frequently  killed 
old  vines.  On  this  account  it  is  quite  a  general  practice  to  flood  the  vine- 
yards during  the  winter,  after  pruning,  in  order  to  distribute  these  salts. 

In  a  section  where  the  average  rainfall  for  the  year  totals  less  than 
three  inches,  irrigation  is,  of  course,  a  very  important  operation.  Over- 
irrigation  is  seldom  practiced  in  the  vineyards  of  this  section,  although  on  the 
very  sandy  types  too  much  water  has  been  applied  to  the  detriment  of  the 
vineyard.  On  the  other  hand  too  little  irrigation  is  not  infrequent.  Cases 
have  been  noted  where  water  has  not  penetrated  more  than  eighteen  inches 
to  two  feet,  with  the  natural  result  that  the  roots  were  all  near  the  surface 
and  affected  by  the  least  drought.  Hundreds  of  dollars  have  been  spent  in 
treating  for  disease  vines  which  needed  nothing  but  a  thorough  irrigation. 
Every  irrigator  should  know  how  far  the  water  penetrates  in  his  soil  type 
and  should  irrigate  in  such  a  way  that  a  fairly  constant  supply  of  moisture 
will  be  maintained,  through  the  growing  season.  The  method  or  time  of 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  109 

irrigation  apparently  makes  little"  difference  in  either  yield  or  quality,  pro- 
vided plenty  of  water  is  added  to  keep  up  a  good  growth.  Some  practice 
and  advocate  winter  irrigation,  with  no  spring  or  summer  irrigation  until 
the  grapes  have  been  harvested.  Others  advocate  the  app  ication  of  water 
at  more  or  less  frequent  intervals  during  the  spring  and  early  summer. 
Both  methods,  with  others  half-way  between,  have  given  good  results. 

Pruning  undoubtedly  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  results  secured 
in  the  vineyards.  Pruning  methods  for  this  section  must  be  studied  before 
the  best  work  can  be  done.  The  tendency  of  the  vines  to  make  a  very 
rapid  vegetative  growth  at  once  suggests  longer  pruning,  leaving  three  buds 
instead  of  two,  or  leaving  more  canes.  This  applies  particularly  to  the  early 
Persian  varieties,  which  make  a  very  large  growth  but  so  far  have  produced 
a  very  poor  yield.  This  can  be  overdone,  however,  as  clearly  evidenced  in 
one  instance  where  twelve  to  fifteen  canes  were  left,  with  the  hope  of  secur- 
ing a  larger  yield.  The  total  yield  was  larger  than  at  any  previous  time 
but  the  quality  was  poor.  Where  before  a  large  part  of  the  crop  had  been 
sold  as  fancy  grapes,  the  percentage  of  good  bunches  was  very  small,  and 
the  profits  less.  Some  of  the  varieties  which  are  normally  pruned  short, 
will  probably  be  improved  by  long  pruning  and  trellising.  This  is  being 
tried  with  all  of  the  Persians  and  some  other  vigorous  varieties. 

The  practice  of  shipping  grapes  which  are  too  green  has  been  practi- 
cally stopped  in  Imperial  Valley,  on  account  of  the  poor  results  secured 
from  these  green  shipments  and  on  account  of  the  campaign  of  education 
along  this  line.  Some  still  tend  to  pick  before  the  sugar  content  is  as  high 
as  desired,  but  the  practice  is  diminishing. 

The  question  of  varieties  is  a  live  issue  among  the  vineyardists.  As 
previously  stated,  the  first  vineyard  planted  contained  twenty  varieties  of 
grapes.  Some  of  these  proved  to  be  quite  well  adapted  to  conditions,  while 
others  proved  to  be  quite  inferior.  Needless  to  say  the  mixture  of  twenty 
varieties  in  one  small  vineyard  was  not  profitable  and  as  a  result  the  whole 
patch  was  dug  up  in  1913.  Alkali  patches  in  this  vineyard  formed  a  really 
important  contributing  cause  for  the  digging  up  of  the  vineyard  however. 

Malaga  grapes  form  a  large  part  of  the  grape  acreage  in  the  valley, 
and  are  well  adapted  to  the  conditions.  The  earlier  ripening  grapes,  however, 
are  the  varieties  which  are  receiving  the  greatest  attention  at  the  present 
time,  and  very  few  Malagas  are  now  being  planted.  The  Thompson  Seedless 
is,  perhaps,  the  favorite  grape  at  present,  as  it  bears  well,  ripens  early  and 
is  easily  packed.  Persian  No.  23  and  Persian  No.  21  are  very  promising 
grapes  but  so  far  have  not  borne  well.  Long  pruning  may  remedy  this  un- 
favorable feature,  in  fact,  if  the  blossoms  on  the  vines  at  present  are  any 
criterion  the  yield  will  be  very  satisfactory  on  the  vines  which  were  pruned 
long.  Persian  No.  23  is  slightly  earlier  than  No.  21.  Both  varieties  are  large 
white  grapes.  The  bunches  are  large  and  loose  and  the  grape  is  a  good 
shipper.  The  Khalili  is  the  earliest  grape  grown  in  this  section.  It  ripens 
in  the  latter  part  of  May  and  may  prove  to  be  a  very  desirable  variety  for 
this  section.  The  grapes  are  slightly  larger  than  the  Thompson  Seedless, 
are  almost  seedless  and  are  fair  shippers. 

Many  of  the  colored  varieties  do  not  succeed.  In  most  cases  they  do  not 
color  well.  The  Flame  Tokay,  for  example,  is  shipped  as  White  Tokay.  The 
first  crop  of  Emperors  is  very  light,  although  the  second  and  third  crops 


110  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

are  quite  well  colored.  For  a  late  grape,  this  is  quite  a  satisfactory  variety. 
Of  other  varieties  of  promise  the  Almeria,  Chavushi,  Paykani  Razui  and 
Rish  Baba,  may  be  mentioned. 

The  yield  of  grapes  in  this  section  has  been  rather  light,  but  the  prices 
have  been  very  good  indeed.  The  present  interest  in  early  table  grapes 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  acreage  will  increase  rather  rapidly  in  the  next 
few  years.  The  experience  of  the  pioneers  forms  a  solid  basis  for  a  healthy 
development  of  this  industry,  which  will  form  one  of  the  most  profitable 
enterprises  in  the  valley. 


Mr.  Vance:  I  wrote  to  a  number  of  men  in  the  different  States  in  order 
to  get  expressions  in  relation  to  the  growing  of  grapes  all  over  this  broad 
land.  It  is  certainly  wonderful  for  men  to  try  to  grow  grapes  in  such  a 
terrible  region  as  I  was  told  the  Imperial  Valley  is  while  down  in  San  Diego. 
It  shows  the  persistence  of  man. 

President  Alwood:  I  want  to  ask  Professor  Flossfeder  about  his  state- 
ment regarding  the  increase  of  sugar  in  certain  varieties  when  grafted  on 
different  stocks.  Did  not  you  say  that  the  increase  in  sugar  was  25  per  cent 
or  30  per  cent  when  grafted  on  different  stocks? 

Prof.  Flossfeder:  Yes,  sir.  Of  course  these  experiments  must  be  run 
for  at  least  ten  years  and  then  we  can  say  for  certain  that  such  is  the  case. 

Prof.  Hussman:  You  will  find  data  in  this  connection  in  Bulletin  No.  209 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  which  is  in  press  now. 

Mr.  Frank  Henry,  private  farm  adviser  for  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  in 
speaking  of  conditions  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  said  that  in  some  cases  too 
great  an  amount  of  water  is  used,  and  sometimes  insufficient  water  is  used. 
In  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  too  much  water  is  the  cause  of  failure.  Water 
properly  applied  at  the  right  season  is  very  essential,  but  when  improperly 
used,  the  crop  is  lessened.  The  people  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  should 
be  educated  as  to  the  proper  time  to  use  water.  In  the  lower  end  of  the 
valley,  the  vineyards  being  near  the  river,  the  conditions  are  good,  but  back 
from  the  river  the  conditions  are  bad  through  a  wrong  system  of  irrigation. 

President  Alwood:  It  certainly  appears  to  a  person  not  familiar  with 
California  conditions  that  you  have  many  problems. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  111 

GRAPE   ANTHRACNOSE   IN   AMERICA. 

By  C.  L.  SHEAR, 

Pathologist,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


Grape  anthracnose  is  a  fungous  disease  caused  by  Sphaceloma  ampelinum 
De  Bary.i  It  is  called  "Charbon"  by  the  French,  and  "Schwarzer  Brenner" 
by  the  Germans.  The  name  anthracnose  was  first  applied  to  it  by  Fabre  and 
Dunais  in  1853. 

This  disease  was  first  reported  with  certainty  in  this  country,  so  far  as 
known  to  the  writer,  by  Professor  Burrill"  of  Illinois.  He  says  he  found  it 
in  Central  Illinois  in  1881  and  had  also  seen  it  in  Indiana,  Michigan  and  Ohio. 
The  native  home  of  the  fungus  is  apparently  in  Europe.  It  was  probably  intro- 
duced into  this  country  some  time  before  this.  As  it  is  such  a  conspicuous 
and  destructive  disease  it  does  not  seem  that  it  could  have  escaped  observa- 
tion long  if  it  had  been  present  in  our  commercial  vineyards.  It  was  first 
accurately  described  in  Europe  by  Fintelmann^  in  1839  and  Vialao  says  speci- 
mens are  preserved  in  the  herbarium  of  Dunal  at  Montpellier  collected  in 
October,  1839.  It  is  quite  probable,  however,  that  earlier  European  descrip- 
tions of  grape  diseases  than  those  mentioned  above  refer  to  this.  H.  Mares, 
according  to  Viala,  cites  a  passage  in  Theophrastus  which  he  believes  refers 
to  this  disease  and  L.  Portes,  according  to  the  same  author,  cites  a  passage 
in  Pliny's  Natural  History,  Books  XVII  and  XVIII,  which  agrees  with  the 
appearance  of  this  disease.  According  to  certain  French  traditions  reported 
by  PrillieuxS  the  disease  was  prevalent  in  certain  parts  of  France  before 
the  French  Revolution  and  before  any  American  vines  had  been  introduced 
into  that  country.  All  the  evidence  thus  far  discovered,  therefore,  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  disease  is  native  in  Europe  and  has  probably  been  intro- 
duced into  America.  It  has  never  been  found,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  on 
the  wild  grape  vines  in  this  country.  It,  however,  attacks  American  varieties 
derived  from  our  native  species. 

Meyen,7  1841,  also  described  the  disease  but  did  not  determine  the  organ- 
ism causing  it.  In  1873  De  Baryi  investigated  the  disease,  determined  and 
named  the  fungus  producing  it,  and  gave  an  accurate  description  of  the 
organism. 

The  effects  of  the  disease  are  so  characteristic  and  noticeable  that  when 
once  seen  it  is  easily  recognized.  The  fungus  attacks  practically  all  of  the 
green  parts  of  the  grape.  It  is  first  noticed  on  the  young  leaves  and  shoots. 
In  the  case  of  vinifera  varieties  the  leaves  are  seriously  affected,  becoming 


iDe  Bary,  A.    Annalen  der  Oenologie  4.165.2   1873. 

2Fabre,  Esprit.  Observations  sur  les  Maladies  regnantes  de  la  Vigne, 
mises  au  jour  par  Felix  Dunal,  Montpellier  4',  48  pp.  6  tab.  1853. 

"Burrill,  T.  J.  Grape  Rots.  Proc.  20th  Session  Amer.  Pomol.  Soc.  1885: 
48.  1886. 

4Fintelmann,  G.  A.    Allegemeine  Gartenzeitung,  7:273-276.     1839. 

5  Viala,  P.    Les  Maladies  de  la  Vigne.     Ed.  3,  206.     1893. 

6  Prillieux,  E.  E.     L'Anthracnose  de  la  Vigne  observee  dans  le  centre  de 
la  France.    Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France,  26:187,    1879. 

"Meyen,  F.  J.  F.    Pflanzenpathologie,  Berlin.     1841. 
iDe  bary,  A.    Loc.  cit. 


112  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

distorted,  curled  and  spotted,  with  small,  dead  areas  which  soon  drop  out, 
leaving  irregular  holes,  as  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  On  the  shoots  small, 
dark  spots  at  first  appear  which  enlarge  rather  rapidly,  causing  sunken 
cankers  with  a  more  or  less  reddened  margin  (see  Fig.  2).  As  the  fungus 
develops  and  produces  its  spores  on  the  surface  of  the  cankers  the  sunken 
portion  becomes  ashy  gray  in  color.  Under  favorable  weather  conditions 
the  cankers  multiply  rapidly,  and  finally  destroy  the  whole  shoot.  In  case 
of  American  varieties  the  young  foliage  is  not  so  seriously  affected  and  the 
disease  is  restricted  almost  entirely  to  the  under  side  of  the  ribs  of  the  leaf. 
The  fungus  also  attacks  the  berries  during  all  stages  of  their  development. 
The  most  striking  and  characteristic  appearance  of  the  fungus  occurs  in  the 
lesions  produced  upon  the  berries,  especially  the  varieties  having  light 
colored  fruit.  A  light  brown  spot  first  appears;  this  increases  in  diameter 
and  soon  becomes  surrounded  by  a  bright  red  zone,  while  the  central  portion 
of  the  spot  becomes  ashy  gray  as  the  spores  of  the  fungus  are  developed. 
These  bright  colored  spots  on  the  fruit  have  given  rise  to  the  common  name, 
"bird's  eye"  rot,  in  some  sections,  owing  to  their  fancied  resemblance  to  the 
eye  of  a  bird.  Fruit  affected  by  this  fungus  soon  dries  up  and  is  worthless. 

Three  kinds  of  anthracnose  of  the  vine  have  been  described  by  French 
writers,  Anthracnose  maculee,  spotted  anthracnose;  Anthracnose  ponctuee, 
punctate  anthracnose,  and  Anthracnose  deformante,  causing  malformed 
leaves  and  shoots.  The  spotted  anthracnose  is  the  only  form  known  to  be 
caused  by  Sphaceloma.  The  punctate  anthracnose  has  recently  been  investi- 
gated by  Schellenbergs  who  states  that  he  produced  the  characteristic  effects 
of  the  disease  by  inoculation  with  Valsa  Vitis  (Schw.).  The  cause  of 
Anthracnose  deformante  is  unknown. 

The  spotted  or  true  anthracnose  is  widely  distributed  in  America  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  but  seems  to  be  rather  erratic  in  its  appearance  and 
behavior.  A  serious  outbreak  will  occasionally  occur  in  a  certain  locality  or 
in  a  certain  vineyard  and  become  very  destructive  for  a  few  years  and  then 
apparently  disappear  more  or  less  completely  for  a  period.  Its  development 
and  spread  apparently  depend  upon  particularly  favorable  combinations  of 
weather  conditions.  Hot,  wet  weather  during  the  early  part  of  the  season 
seems  to  be  most  favorable  for  it.  Several  very  serious  outbreaks  have 
occured  the  present  season  in  Southern  Texas  upon  vinifera  grapes  and  also 
on  varieties  derived  from  Vitis  borquiniana,  such  as  Black  Spanish  (Lenoir). 
The  accompanying  reproduction  of  photographs  shows  the  effect  of  this  dis- 
ease on  leaves  and  shoots  of  vinifera  grapes  (Tokay)  from  Texas.  As  this  is 
in  a  semi-arid  region  little  trouble  from  this  disease  would  ordinarily  be  antic- 
ipated, but  the  past  season  has  been  unusually  wet  and  this  is  probably  the 
primary  factor  in  accounting  for  the  unusual  development  of  this  disease  in 
that  region.  While  some  of  the  vinifera  varieties  very  widely  grown  in 
California  are  subject  to  this  disease  in  humid  regions  no  cases  have  yet 
been  reported  so  far  as  we  know  from  the  irrigated  regions  of  California. 

Certain  American  varieties  appear  to  be  generally  more  susceptible  than 
others.  Champion,  Diogenes,  Moore's  Diamond,  Missouri  Riesling,  Norton, 
Salem,  and  Vergennes,  are  particularly  liable  to  attacks  of  this  disease,  while 
the  Concord  is  rarely  affected  by  it.  Of  the  vinifera  grapes,  Thompson's 


8  Schellenberg,  H.  C.     Tiber  die  Schadigung  der  Weinrebe  durch  Valsa 
Vitis  (Schw.)  Fckl.  Ber.  d.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Gesellsch.     30.586:593.     1912. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


113 


Figs.  1  and  2. 

Fig.  1.     Flame  Tokay  grapes  from  Texas,  showing  injury  caused  by 
Anthracnose  fungus,  Sphaceloma  Ampelinum. 


114 


INTERNATIONAL    CONGRESS    OF    VITICULTURE 


Fig.  2.     Shoots,  leaves  and  tendrils  of  Tokay  grape  from  Texas,  showing 
injury  caused  by  Sphaceloma  Ampelinum. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  115 

Seedless,  Malaga,  Tokay  and  Black  Hamburg  are  the  most  seriously  injured 
in  Texas.  Vialao  gives  a  list  of  susceptible  and  resistant  varieties  of 
European  grapes. 

The  fungus  Sphaceloma  ampelinum  De  Bary  has  been  renamed  and  de- 
scribed by  other  mycologists  and  pathologists  and  transferred  at  different 
times  to  different  genera.  One  of  the  latest  researches  on  the  morphology 
and  biology  of  the  fungus  is  that  of  Viala  and  Pacottet.9  These  authors  have 
decided  as  the  result  of  their  investigations  that  the  fungus  is  an  Ascomycete 
and  have  established  for  it  a  new  genus,  Manginia.  They  describe  several 
different  spore  forms  which  they  obtained  in  cultures.  These  include  what 
they  call  a  yeast  form  which  produced  asci  and  ascospores.  They  also  de- 
scribe various  forms  of  resting  spores  and  cysts;  also  a  spermogonial  form; 
and  a  macroconidial  form  arising  from  sclerotia  but  no  perithecia  were  pro- 
duced. These  results  have  not  yet  been  verified  by  other  investigators.  This 
would  seem  desirable,  however,  in  view  of  the  remarkable  diversity  of  the 
various  spore  forms  described  and  the  present  lack  of  knowledge  of  any 
organism  having  a  similar  variety  of  metagenetic  stages  or  spore  forms.  The 
writer  has  grown  Sphaceloma  in  pure  culture  on  agar  at  various  times  for 
long  periods  but  has  not  yet  observed  any  of  the  various  spore  forms  de- 
scribed except  the  ordinary  microconidia  and  bodies  resembling  clamydo- 
spores,  or  resting  spores  of  various  shapes  and  sizes.  This  however,  is  not 
offered  as  evidence  that  other  forms  do  not  occur  under  other  conditions  or 
on  other  media. 

Assuming  the  accuracy  of  their  work  the  need  of  a  new  generic  name 
for  the  organism  is  still  not  clear  to  us. 

It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  note  the  recent  report  by  Burk- 
holderio  of  the  discovery  of  the  ascogenous  form  of  the  anthracnose  of 
raspberries  and  blackberries.  This  has  been  shown  to  be  a  Discomycete 
closely  related  to  Plectodiscella  piri  Woronichin.n  A  very  close  resemblance 
in  pure  cultures  between  the  anthracnose  fungus  of  the  grape  and  that  of  the 
Rubus  species  has  attracted  our  attention  and  suggested  the  possibility  of  a 
close  relationship,  if  not  identity  of  the  organisms.  Cross  inoculation  experi- 
ments have  been  planned  by  the  writer  to  determine  whether  these  organ- 
isms will  pass  from  one  host  to  another.  The  appearance  and  morphological 
characters  of  the  two  organisms  in  culture  are  so  similar  that  it  is  difficult  to 
separate  them  in  this  condition.  There  is  also  considerable  similarity  be- 
tween the  cankers  produced  on  the  different  hosts.  No  fructifications  of  an 
ascomycetous  fungus  resembling  the  Plectodiscella  on  raspberry  has  yet 
been  discovered  on  grape  vines  affected  with  anthracnose.  If  the  anthrac- 
nose of  grape  and  of  Rubus  species  should  prove  to  be  the  same  it  would 
have  an  important  bearing  upon  studies  of  the  distribution  and  control  of  the 
disease.  The  raspberry  and  blackberry  anthracnose  appears  much  more 
common  than  that  of  the  grape. 


»Viala,  P.    Loc.  cit.  p.  216. 

9Viala,  P.  and  Pacottet,  P.  Culture  et  developpement  de  1'Anthracnose. 
Revue  de  Viticulture  22:117  and  145.  1904. 

Viaia,  P.  and  Pacottet,  P.  Nouvelle  Recherches  sur  1'Anthracnose.  Re- 
vue de  Viticulture,  24:1905;  25:1906. 

lOBurkholder,  W.  H.  The  perfect  stage  of  the  fungus  of  raspberry  an- 
thracnose. Abst.  Phytopathology  4:407.  1914. 

UWoronichin,  N.  N.    Myc.  Centbl.  4:225-233.     1914. 


116 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 
Methods  of  Control. 


Spraying  with  ordinary  fungicides  during  the  growing  season  only  does 
not  prove  effective  in  preventing  the  disease.  The  treatment  of  dormant 
plants  with  a  mixture  of  iron  sulphate  and  sulphuric  acid  has  been  success- 
fully applied  in  Europe.  This,  however,  is  a  very  unpleasant  mixture  to 
prepare  and  use  on  account  of  the  corrosive  action  of  sulphuric  acid.  As  a 
result  of  experiments  conducted  by  Dr.  Hawkinsi2  under  our  direction  in 


Fig.  3.     Treated  vine. 


Michigan  on  Champion  grape  vines,  very  seriously  affected  with  anthracnose, 
it  was  found  that  a  treatment  less  troublesome  to  apply  than  the  sulphuric 
acid  mixture  was  entirely  successful.  In  connection  with  any  treatment  by 
spraying  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  eradicate  and  destroy  as  much  of  the 
disease  as  possible.  All  the  diseased  wood  should  be  pruned  out  and  burned; 
then  spray  the  dormant  vines  thoroughly  with  concentrated  lime-sulphur 
solution,  1  to  9,  after  which  thorough  treatment  with  four  or  five  applications 
of  4-3-50  Bordeaux  mixture  has  been  found  to  reduce  the  injury  from  this 
disease  to  the  minimum.  Figure  3  shows  treated  and  figure  4  untreated 
vines.  The  first  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  should  be  done  when  the 


i2Hawkins,  L.  A.     Experiments  in  the  Control   of  Grape  Anthracnose. 
Circ.  105,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.    Feb.,  1913,  pp.  1-8. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


117 


shoots  are  from  8  to  10  inches  long;  the  second,  just  before  the  flower  buds 
open;  the  third  immediately  after  the  blossoms  fall;  the  fourth  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  after  the  third.  The  addition  of  two  pounds  of  resin  fish-oil  soap 
to  fifty  gallons  of  the  spray  mixture  in  the  last  two  applications  is  desirable 
in  order  to  increase  the  adhesiveness  of  the  fungicide. 


Fig.  4.     Untreated  vine. 


POWDERY  MILDEW  OF  GRAPES  AND  ITS  CONTROL  IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES. 

By  Prof.  DONALD  REDDICK,  Cornell  Univ.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  and 
F.  E.  GLADWIX,  Fredonia,  N.  Y. 

Abstract  read  by  Prof.  Frederic  T.  Bioletti. 

By  far  the  largest  continuous  area  of  land  given  to  the  culture  of  grapes 
in  Eastern  United  States  is  that  lying  in  a  narrow  belt  along  the  southern 
shore  of  Lake  Erie.  This  belt  is  often  referred  to  by  residents  of  New  York 
and  others  as  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt,  owing  to  the  fact  that  some  30,000 
acres  of  a  possible  50,000  are  located  in  Chautauqua  County,  New  York.  The 
records  and  observations  that  follow  have  been  made  at  a  vineyard  labora- 
tory located  near  Fredonia,  New  York.  They  cover  a  period  of  five  years 
and  have  been  made  possible  in  part  by  a  special  legislative  commission  to 


118  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  to  investigate  the  cause  of 
the  decline  in  the  grape  industry  in  Chautauqua  County. 

The  geology,  physical  geography  and  meteorology  of  the  "grape  belt" 
are  presented  by  Tarr,i  and  it  is  easy  to  see  from  his  account  why  it  is  that 
this  "belt"  is  so  admirably  adapted  to  grape  culture.  While  the  meteorologi- 
cal conditions  can  be  described,  it  is  really  necessary  to  undertake  infec- 
tion work  under  vineyard  conditions  to  fully  appreciate  the  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere  and  the  fact  that  there  is  a  constant  air  current  in  one 
direction  or  another.  One  of  the  writers  (R.)  has  expressed  the  opinions 
that  the  two  most  destructive  fungous  diseases  of  the  grape,  downy  mildew 
and  black  rot,  are  held  in  check  by  an  unusual  combination  of  meteorologi- 
cal conditions.  At  any  rate  it  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  neither 
of  these  diseases  has  ever  seriously  menaced  the  Chautauqua  belt,  although 
both  have  occurred  in  certain  vineyards  to  a  certain  extent.  It  is  noticeable 
that  the  vineyards  in  which  black  rot  has  occurred  are  in  small  depressed 
areas  having  poor  air  drainage,  or  in  vineyards  far  up  or  over  the  ridge, 
left  by  the  sudden  lowering  of  the  lake  level  during  glacial  recession,  and 
that  downy  mildew  does  occur  generally,  although  as  a  rule  to  a  limited 
extent,  on  such  susceptible  varieties  as  Delaware  and  certain  of  the  Rogers 
Hybrids,  notably  Agawam  and  Lindley.  This  freedom  from  disease  may  be 
attributed  in  part  to  the  resistance  of  the  variety  Concord  which  com- 
prises perhaps  99  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage,  but  varietal  resistance  can 
be  only  a  partial  explanation  for,  in  other  sections  of  the  State,  this  variety 
may  suffer  severely  although  never  so  severely  as  the  varieties  just  men- 
tioned. 

So  far  as  these  diseases  are  concerned,  therefore,  there  is  no  object 
in  applying  a  fungicide  to  the  vineyards.  At  a  conservative  estimate  not 
one-tenth  of  the  vineyardists  in  the  Chautauqua  belt  own  a  spraying  outfit 
of  any  description,  and  scarcely  half  of  those  could  be  operated  if  there 
were  a  desire  to  do  so.  The  grape  root-worm  (Fidia  viticida)  exists  through- 
out the  belt  and  the  sprayers  in  use  are  employed  in  fighting  this  insect. 
The  time  for  effective  application  against  this  pest  is  near  the  first  of  July. 
If  two  applications  of  poison  are  made  the  second  treatment  is  rarely  applied 
later  than  July  15th. 

The   Mildew. 

In  the  French  vineyards,  as  is  well  known,  the  powdery  mildew,  caused 
by  Uncinula  necator,  is  likely  to  be  very  serious  at  blossoming  time.  In 
the  Chautauqua  belt,  on  the  other  hand,  mildew  rarely  appears  before  the 
middle  or  end  of  July,  and  sometimes  even  a  trace  of  it  can  not  be  found 
before  mid-August. 

It  is  at  about  this  time  of  year  that  heavy  dew  forms  at  night.  Whether 
the  occurrence  of  dew  has  anything  to  do  with  the  appearance  of  mildew 
is  not  known.  The  method  of  hibernation  of  the  fungus  is  not  definitely 
known  although  it  is  assumed  to  be  by  means  of  ascospores  in  perithecia. 
The  conditions  for  infection  by  ascospores  and  conidia  have  not  been  de- 


1  Tarr,  R.  S.  Geological  history  of  the  Chautauqua  grape  belt.     Cornell 
Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  109:121. 

2  Reddick,  Donald.    The  black  rot  disease  of  grapes.    Cornell  Univ.  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  293:342-345. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  119 

termined  by  the  writers  nor  apparently  by  anyone  else.  It  is  not  even 
known  how  long  a  time  is  required  for  conidia  to  germinate  under  field 
conditions,  nor  what  degree  of  moisture  is  most  favorable  for  their  germi- 
nation. The  mildews  are  sometimes  regarded  as  dry  weather  diseases, 
although  the  experience  of  Blodgett:i  in  hop  yards  seems  definitely  to  corre- 
late infection  of  the  hop  mildew  fungus  with  periods  of  rainfall.  Admittedly 
there  are  here  some  interesting  points  in  the  life-cycle  of  the  Uncinula  which 
need  investigation.  The  first  spots  of  mildew  appear  promiscuously  on  the 
green  parts.  Secondary  infections  occur  in  rapid  succession  and  in  a  sur- 
prisingly short  time  leaves  can  be  found  that  are  entirely  overrun  with  the 
fungus.  Berries  here  and  there  begin  to  show  the  dwarfing  effect  of  mildew. 
But  the  point  where  the  fungus  seems  to  spread  most  rapidly  is  on  the 
peduncles  and  pedicles.  By  harvest  time,  in  early  October,  the  peduncles 
are  dwarfed  and  withered,  the  berries  of  some  of  the  clusters  frequently 
have  a  grayish,  powdery  appearance  and  the  foliage  may  appear  almost 
white  from  the  abundance  of  conidia.  By  this  time  perithecia  are  exceedingly 
abundant  on  the  peduncles  and  on  the  older  spots  on  the  leaves. 

A  canvas  of  fifty  men,  average  or  better  than  average  vineyardists, 
made  in  1914  elicted  the  fact  that  mildew  is  not  regarded  by  growers  as  of 
any  particular  consequence,  and  that  in  their  opinion  the  amount  of  damage 
is  negligible  or  very  slight.  Unfortunately  the  grower  rarely  if  ever  sees  his 
baskets  of  fruit  after  they  have  been  subjected  to  shipment  and  carting. 
In  all  probability  he  would  disclaim  his  package  and  charge  fraud  if  he 
were  to  see  his  fruit  as  it  is  offered  for  sale  two  weeks  later  by  the  retail 
grocer.  In  cases  of  severe  infestation  the  peduncles  are  commonly  withered 
and  black  and  as  high  as  50  per  cent  of  the  berries  may  have  shelled.  The 
percentage  of  shelling  from  healthy  clusters  treated  similarly  is  relatively 
small. 

So  far  as  basket  grapes  are  concerned,  therefore,  the  mildew  disease 
does  not  appeal  to  the  average  grower  as  a  disease  worth  fighting.  The 
springing  up  of  unfermented  grape  juice  and  grape  product  factories,  how- 
ever, lately  has  brought  a  stimulus  for  the  production  of  a  better  quality  of 
fruit.  This  stimulus  is  largely  from  the  very  high  standard  of  quality  de- 
manded by  some  of  the  largest  consumers. 

Control. 

Since  the  margin  of  profit  on  grapes  is  not  very  great,  all  of  the  above 
factors  enter  into  consideration  in  planning  a  system  of  mildew  control  that 
will  be  accepted  and  put  into  practice  by  grape  growers.  That  the  mildew 
is  relatively  easy  to  control  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  the  disease  is  usually 
dismissed  by  compilers  of  information  with  the  statement  that  treatments 
for  black  rot  and  downy  mildew  will  serve  to  hold  this  disease  in  check.  That 
the  disease  commonly  is  not  controlled  is  attested  by  the  conditions  in  the 
largest  grape  section  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  presented  above  and 
by  the  examination  of  a  few  packages  of  Concord  grapes  on  any  of  the 
large  markets. 


3  Blodgett,  F.  M.     Further   studies  on  the   spread   and  control   of  hop 
mildew.    New  York  (Geneva)  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  395.41-43. 


120  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Spraying. 

Since  the  Chautauqua  grower  can  use  a  spray  with  profit  in  fighting  the 
root-worm,  some  of  the  first  efforts  in  mildew  control  were  to  combine  a 
fungicide  with  the  poison.  Bordeaux  mixture  has  been  used  commonly 
where  any  spraying  has  been  done  and,  in  fact,  some  of  the  men  who  use 
the  mixture  believe  that  it  is  a  part  of  the  insect  poison.  The  amount  of 
mildew  in  Bordeaux-sprayed  vineyards  is  considerably  reduced  even  though 
the  applications  are  made  a  month  or  more  before  the  first  appearance  of 
the  disease.  Extensive  spraying  experiments  were  performed,  the  entomo- 
logical features  of  which  have  been  published  in  detail  by  Hartzell.4  As  a 
general  summary  of  those  experiments  it  may  be  said  that  the  degree  of 
mildew  control  obtained  by  making  applications  at  the  time  when  the  Fidia 
beetles  could  be  killed  barely  warranted  the  use  of  a  fungicide.  Bordeaux 
mixture  gave  best  results  where  the  foliage  was  sparse  and  where  it  was 
possible  to  cover  the  clusters  thoroughly.  In  cases  where  the  foliage  was 
very  dense  any  of  the  sulphur  sprays  proved  superior.  The  mildew  fungus 
did  not  grow  where  there  was  a  film  of  Bordeaux  mixture  but  if  a  leaf 
received  a  coarse  sprinkling  of  the  mixture  the  fungus  grew  between  the 
individual  spots.  With  any  of  the  sulphur  sprays  the  leaves  remained 
entirely  free  from  the  fungus  until  all  the  sulphur  had  been  washed  away. 

In  one  of  the  experiments,  which  was  followed  up  a  second  year  by  the 
owner  of  the  vineyard,  it  developed  that  the  sulphur  sprays  positively  injured 
the  set  of  fruit  for  the  next  year;  in  one  instance  the  crop  was  reduced  one- 
third  on  that  account.  HartzelH  states  that  a  lime-sulphur  spray  cannot  be 
used  on  grapes.  He  also  finds  that  Bordeaux  mixture  interferes  with  effec- 
tive spraying  for  the  root-worm  when  molasses  is  used  with  the  poison.  It 
appeared,  therefore,  that  if  mildew  was  to  be  controlled  at  all,  the  applica- 
tions should  be  specifically  for  that  trouble  and  at  the  most  opportune  times 
and  in  view  of  the  general  apathy  of  growers  with  respect  to  mildew,  it 
seemed  that  if  any  treatment  were  made  at  all  it  must  be  one  quickly,  easily 
and  cheaply  applied. 

Dusting. 

Even  before  the  trouble  with  sulphur  sprays  and  with  Bordeaux  had 
developed,  some  preliminary  experiments  were  performed  (in  1909)  by  Dr. 
F.  M.  Blodgett,  with  sulphur  dusted  over  the  vines  with  a  French  "puffer". 
These  experiments  were  continued  in  a  desultory  manner  by  the  writers 
but  some  work  has  been  done  every  year  since  1909.  Dusting  sulphur  over 
the  vines  late  in  the  season  proved  effective  in  controlling  the  disease.  Even 
when  the  fungus  was  well  established  it  could  be  killed  by  the  use  of  sulphur, 
although  more  satisfactory  results  were  secured  if  an  application  was  made 
at  the  time  when  the  first  traces  of  the  disease  were  evident,  and  was  fol- 
fowed  by  another  application  in  the  course  of  two  weeks  or  more,  depending 
on  meteorologic  conditions. 


4  Hartzell,  F.  Z.     A  preliminary  report  on  grape   insects.     New    York, 
(Geneva)  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  331:579-581. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  121 

Dusting  and  Spraying   Experiments  in  1911. 

In  1911  the  writers  began  a  series  of  experiments  with  sulphur  as  a 
possible  control  for  powdery  mildew.  Bordeaux,  while  very  effective  in  hold- 
ing the  disease  in  check  in  its  early  period  (August  1st),  does  not  protect 
late  unless  other  applications  are  made.  Late  applications  are  undesirable, 
as  they  stain  the  fruit,  if  the  rainfall  is  deficient,  and  thus  render  it  open 
to  the  suspicion  of  the  consumer.  In  certain  seasons  one  application  of 
Bordeaux  has  so  persisted  that  the  pedicels  and  peduncles  have  been  practi- 
cally free  from  mildew  at  harvest  time.  It  was  for  the  purpose  of  controll- 
ing the  disease  during  the  ripening  period,  and  up  to  the  harvest  without  the 
staining  attendant  upon  late  applications  of  Bordeaux,  that  the  tests  were 
carried  out. 

A  vineyard  consisting  of  Concord,  Worden  and  Lindley  was  selected  for 
the  early  tests.  The  presence  of  Lindley  in  considerable  numbers  made  this 
vineyard  particularly  desirable,  as  this  variety  is  very  subject  to  powdery 
mildew.  The  fifteen  rows  of  vines  included  in  the  experiment  were  all 
sprayed  in  the  dormant  state  on  April  27,  1911,  with  commercial  lime- 
sulphur  solution  at  the  dilution  of  1  part  of  solution  to  11  parts  of  water. 
Rows  1,  4,  8,  10  and  11  were  sprayed  July  1st,  July  21st  and  July  31st  with 
Atomic  sulphur^  2  pounds  and  arsenate  of  lead  2  pounds  to  50  gallons  of 
water.  Rows  2,  5,  9  and  14  were  dusted  with  flowers  of  sulphur  with  a 
knapsack  duster  on  July  14th  and  31st.  Row  13  was  given  one  application 
of  Atomic  sulphur  and  arsenate  of  lead  July  21st.  Rows  3,  6,  7,  12  and  15 
were  left  as  controls.  The  dust  applications  were  made  on  warm  days  as 
far  as  possible.  Comparison  of  the  various  treatments  a  short  time  before 
harvest,  showed  that  neither  the  dormant  spraying  nor  the  spraying  with 
Atomic  sulphur  had  controlled  the  mildew  satisfactorily.  Marked  differences 
were  plainly  seen  between  the  rows  that  were  sulphur  dusted  and  the  con- 
trols. The  leaves  of  the  latter  were  fairly  white  with  mildew  and  the 
peduncles  and  pedicels  were  but  slightly  less  affected.  The  dusted  foliage  was 
green  and  with  a  minimum  of  mildew  and  the  berries  were  practically  free 
from  mildew.  No  injury  to  leaf,  fruit  nor  wood  was  shown  at  this  time  nor 
did  later  observations  disclose  any  such. 

Sulphuring    in   1912. 

In  1912  the  same  vineyard  was  again  used  for  dusting  but  no  dormant 
or  summer  sprayings  were  given.  This  year  the  experiment  was  limited 
to  6  rows  of  Lindley  of  22  vines  each.  The  dusted  rows  alternated  with  the 
controls,  there  being  three  that  were  treated  and  three  left  as  controls.  The 
first  dusting  was  done  July  llth,  and  this  application  as  well  as  the  later 
ones  were  made  with  a  traction  duster.  The  weather  on  this  date  was  warm, 
cloudy  and  humid.  The  second  application  of  dust  was  made  July  29th,  the 
weather  being  humid  and  cloudy.  The  third  application  was  made  on 
August  12th.  The  forenoon  of  this  day  was  humid  and  cloudy,  changing  to 
clear  in  the  afternoon  with  fresh  winds. 

Just  previous  to  the  picking  of  these  rows  careful  counts  were  made 
of  the  affected  and  unaffected  clusters,  and  the  presence  of  mildew  on  the 


•'Trade  name   for  an   exceedingly  fine   sulphur  sold  in  paste  form   by 
Thomsen  Chemical  Company. 


122  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

leaves  estimated  both  for  the  dusted  and  control  rows.  On  the  66  vines  of 
the  latter  there  were  34  vines  on  which  there  was  mildew  on  80  per  cent 
or  more  of  the  stems  or  berries.  Four  vines  only  had  clusters  60  per  cent 
of  which  were  free  and  no  vine  of  the  controls  bore  clusters  70  per  cent  of 
which  were  free  from  mildew.  Of  the  65  vines  dusted,  60  showed  70  per  cent 
and  above,  mildew-free  clusters.  On  59  vines  80  per  cent  or  over  of  the 
clusters  were  free  from  disease.  The  leaves  of  the  control  vines  were  very 
generally  affected  so  that  the  entire  row  had  a  distinct  grayish  cast.  It  was 
possible  to  select  the  treated  rows  from  the  controls  from  a  superficial 
examination,  even  by  the  untrained  observer.  As  in  the  preceding  year  no 
injury  to  any  part  of  the  vine  by  reason  of  the  treatment  was  to  be  seen. 

During  the  same  season,  6  rows  of  Delaware  were  dusted  in  a  neighbor- 
ing vineyard.  The  first  application  was  made  August  1st  with  a  knapsack 
machine.  Five  rows  of  the  same  vineyard  were  left  as  control.  A  second 
application  was  made  August  13th  with  the  traction  duster.  An  examination 
of  the  vines  during  the  period  preceding  ripening,  and  at  the  time  of  harvest 
disclosed  very  little  mildew  even  on  the  control  rows,  with  possibly  a 
trifle  less  on  the  treated.  However,  the  slight  infection  made  impossible 
the  securing  of  reliable  data.  No  injury  to  the  vines  was  to  be  seen  as  a 
result  of  the  sulphur  applications. 

In  a  Concord  section  of  the  same  vineyard  7  rows  of  100  vines  each  were 
treated  with  a  dust  consisting  of  45  pounds  of  sulphur  flour  and  5  pounds 
of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  per  acre.  This  application  was  made  July  11, 
1912.  The  weather  on  this  day  was-  hot  and  clear.  A  control  of  several 
rows  containing  the  same  number  of  vines  was  left.  Owing  to  the  slight 
infection  of  mildew  on  the  control  vines  no  data  were  obtainable  as  to  the 
efficacy  of  the  treatment.  To  all  appearances  the  dusted  and  untreated 
vines  were  practically  alike.  Each  matured  a  good  crop  of  fruit. 


Dusting  in  1913. 

During  the  summer  of  1913  the  Lindley  vineyard  was  again  dusted. 
Each  application  was  made  with  the  traction  machine,  the  first,  July  18th, 
when  the  weather  was  clear  and  warm;  5  days  elapsed  before  a  rain;  the 
second  July  30th,  a  hot,  humid  day  followed  by  light  showers  at  night. 
Three  rows  were  left  as  control,  while  three  and  a  portion  of  a  fourth  immedi- 
ately adjoining  were  treated.  Through  this  selection  one  of  the  rows  that 
was  dusted  in  1912  became  a  control  in  1913  while  one  of  the  check  rows 
of  1912  received  treatment  in  1913.  The  other  rows  of  the  vineyard  were 
treated  as  in  1912.  On  September  6,  1913,  a  count  was  made  of  the  clusters 
of  each  plat.  Of  2101  clusters  examined  in  the  three  control  rows,  20G2 
showed  mildew  of  some  degree  while  but  29  clusters  could  be  classed  as 
entirely  free,  i.  e.,  1.3  per  cent  of  the  entire  number.  2151  clusters  were 
examined  from  the  66  dusted  vines.  1670  of  these  or  77  per  cent  were  found 
to  be  free  of  the  disease.  481  clusters  were  affected  in  some  degree.  The 
leaves  on  the  untreated  vines  were  very  generally  affected  while  those  of 
dusted  ones  showed  only  occasional  spots  of  mildew.  The  sulphur  in  no 
way  injured  any  part  of  the  vines. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  OK  PUBLICATION  123 

Experiments  of  1914. 

In  1914  the  Lindley  vineyard  was  again  treated  as  in  1913.  The  dusted 
and  control  rows  remaining  the  same.  The  first  application  was  made  July 
6th.  The  weather  on  this  day  was  clear  with  a  maximum  temperature  of 
82°.  The  second  treatment  was  given  July  27th,  the  day  being  partly  cloudy 
with  a  maximum  temperature  of  84°.  But  .54  of  an  inch  of  rain  had  fallen 
between  the  two  applications.  The  temperature  average  for  the  six  days 
immediately  following  the  first  dusting  was  88°  F.,  while  the  average  for 
the  entire  intervening  period  was  83.5°.  The  third  dusting  was  made  August 
10th  immediately  after  a  shower.  Only  general  observations  were  made  this 
year  to  determine  the  effects  of  the  sulphuring.  From  this  examination 
it  was  plainly  evident  that  the  treatment  had  proved  as  effective  as  in  the 
preceding  years.  The  first  indication  of  injury  was  noted  at  this  time.  A 
few  leaves  showed  burned  areas,  but  not  enough  to  interfere  in  the  ripening 
of  the  fruit. 

On  July  6th,  a  vineyard  consisting  of  125  varieties,  located  on  the  experi- 
mental grounds  of  the  Vineyard  Laboratory  at  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  was  sulphured 
with  the  traction  machine.  Four  weeks  after  the  application  was  made  it 
was  evident  that  considerable  injury  had  been  done.  Cynthiana,  Norton  and 
Wine  King  were  entirely  defoliated.  The  first  two  belong  to  the  species 
aestivalis  while  the  last-named  contained  aestivalis  blood.  Cottage,  Carman, 
Early  Ohio,  Little  Wonder,  Lutie,  Martha,  Caco,  Geant,  and  Blue  Black  were 
burned  badly,  so  that  the  fruit  and  wood  did  not  mature  well.  Beacon, 
Banner,  Moore,  Eaton,  Ives,  Geneva,  Lukfata,  King,  Northern  Muscadine, 
Regal,  Rockwood,  Worden,  Woodruff  and  Gold  Coin  were  affected  to  a  less 
degree,  although  the  maturity  of  the  fruit  was  interrupted.  In  this  vineyard 
Lindley  nor  any  of  the  Rogers  varieties  were  in  the  least  injured.  As  there 
was  no  Concord  in  this  vineyard,  the  effect  could  not  be  determined  for  this 
variety.  In  another  vineyard,  Winchell  was  partially  defoliated  so  that  fruit 
and  wood  did  not  mature  properly. 

The  excellent  results  with  Lindley  for  the  three  years  previous,  and 
the  freedom  from  injury,  both  of  this  variety  and  Concord,  pointed  to  the 
conclusion  that  a  cheap,  effective  and  safe  treatment  presented  itself  in  the 
application  of  powdered  sulphur.  Approximately  100,000  tons  of  sulphur  are 
used  every  year  in  France,  largely  in  dusting  vineyards.  With  these  facts 
in  mind  it  seemed  perfectly  safe  in  1914  to  undertake  a  final  large  demon- 
stration experiment  of  the  effectiveness,  ease,  simplicity  and  cheapness  of 
an  application  of  dry  sulphur  for  the  control  of  mildew.  A  French  traction 
dusting  machine  was  secured  and  sulphur  of  two  degrees  of  fineness,  ordi- 
nary ground  brimstone  or  flour  sulphur  and  an  exceedingly  finely  ground 
flour  sulphur,  used.  The  plan  of  the  dusting  campaign  had  been  announced 
through  the  columns  of  the  Grape  Belt  and  Chautauqua  County  Farmer. 
The  plan  was  that  at  the  proper  time  a  man  should  come  with  outfit  and 
material  and  dust  a  block  of  four  to  five  hundred  vines.  The  only  require- 
ment imposed  upon  the  grower  was  that  he  should  agree  to  examine  the 
treated  plat  at  picking  time,  compare  it  carefully  with  adjacent  untreated 
vines,  and  furnish  a  statement  of  his  opinion  of  the  effectiveness  of  the 
treatment.  As  everything  was  free,  even  the  labor  involved,  there  was  no 
objection  on  the  part  of  anyone  and  the  number  of  individual  experiments 


124  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

was  limited  only  by  the  quantity  of  material  and  the  time  available  in  which 
to  do  the  work. 

Some  difficulty  was  experienced  with  the  feeding  mechanism  of  the 
duster,  and  the  experiment  was  finally  performed  by  distributing  nearly  50 
per  cent  less  sulphur  per  acre  than  had  been  planned  originally  for  some  of 
the  tests.  A  maximum  of  40  pounds  of  either  grade  of  sulphur  was  applied 
per  acre.  Mildew  was  showing  to  a  limited  extent  in  all  the  vineyards.  In 
some  cases  it  was  necessary  to  search  carefully  to  find  spots  and  in  others 
small  spots,  particularly  on  the  peduncles,  were  easily  found. 

A  half  acre  or  more  in  each  of  47  vineyards  was  dusted.  These  were 
scattered  over  a  territory  about  eight  miles  in  length,  and  represented 
several  soil  types.  Nearly  all  the  vines  treated  were  Concord.  It  was 
planned  to  make  two  applications,  but  subsequent  happenings  interrupted. 
The  first  vineyard  dusted  was  on  July  20th  and  all  were  completed  by  July 
31st.  The  average  maximum  temperature  for  the  22  days  following  the 
treatment  was  84°,  while  the  total  precipitation  for  the  same  period  was 
but  .83  of  an  inch. 

When  the  second  application  was  begun  it  was  seen  that  several  of  the 
vineyards  previously  dusted  were  showing  marked  indications  of  injury  on 
the  leaves.  This  in  the  form  of  burned  areas  over  the  blade  or  a  drying 
out  of  the  margins.  The  second  application  was  then  abandoned.  As  the 
time  of  maturity  approached  the  injury  showed  more  abundantly  and  in 
some  instances  practically  all  of  the  leaves  were  functionless  on  one  or  more 
canes  of  a  vine.  The  fruit  on  such  vines  did  not  color  and  at  harvest  time 
it  was  still  red  and  unmarketable.  In  many  instances  the  season's  wood 
growth  did  not  ripen  so  that  it  was  a  problem  to  find  fruiting  wood  for  the 
crop  of  1915.  In  order  to  learn  to  what  extent  these  conditions  obtained  for 
all  the  vineyards,  the  growers  were  requested  to  report  on  the  effect  of  the 
sulphur  to  leaf,  wood  and  fruit.  Of  the  30  from  whom  such  information  was 
obtained  25  reported  severe  injury  to  leaf,  fruit,  and  wood.  "The  leaves  had 
the  appearance  of  having  been  burned  and  in  extreme  injury,  the  vines  were 
practically  defoliated."  "Wood  growth  and  fruit  development  was  conse- 
quently checked."  One  vineyardist  reported  "that  the  most  damaging  effects 
upon  the  foliage  and  wood  appears  to  be  on  eight  or  ten  rows  adjoining,  and 
on  either  side  of  the  dusted  area."  "In  no  other  of  my  vineyards  is  such  a 
condition  to  be  found."  The  extent  of  injury  with  these  vineyards  made 
impossible  the  securing  of  reliable  data  as  to  the  control  of  the  mildew. 
One  grower  of  the  thirty  reported  slight  injury,  but  owing  to  the  slight 
amount  of  mildew  present  in  the  untreated  sections,  he  was  unable  to  detect 
material  results  from  the  dusting. 

Four  of  the  thirty  reported  no  injury.  Of  this  number  three  saw  no 
beneficial  effects  from  the  sulphuring.  One  of  these,  however,  had  sprayed 
thoroughly  with  Bordeaux.  One  grower  of  the  four  reported  almost  complete 
control. 

Just  what  factors  entered  to  bring  about  these  conditions  is  difficult  to 
say.  Three  of  the  four  vineyards  uninjured  were  dusted  with  fine  sulphur, 
yet  a  large  number  of  those  injured  were  treated  with  the  same  grade.  Leaf 
hopper  injury  to  the  foliage  cannot  be  considered  as  a  factor  for  very  little 
trouble  was  experienced  the  past  year  with  this  insect.  Weather  conditions 
at  and  following  the  application  seems  to  offer  a  possible  explanation,  at 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  125 

least  in  part,  for  the  injury.  As  has  been  stated  previously  a  relatively  long 
period  of  high  temperatures  followed  the  sulphuring  and  there  was  little 
precipitation.  It  is  possible  that  sulphur  particles  became  heated  sufficiently 
to  cause  a  mechanical  burning,  aside  from  any  chemical  reaction  with  the 
leaf  tissues.  The  heat  concentrated  on  the  leaf  surfaces  may  have  resulted 
in  excessive  transpiration,  which  could  not  be  met  by  the  roots  owing  to 
the  drought  at  the  time.  One  of  the  writersG  has  been  studying  a  leaf  affec- 
tion of  the  grape,  that  is  apparently  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  soil  at  critical  periods.  Examination  of  the  injured  dusted  vineyards 
showed  the  leaves  affected  in  much  the  same  manner  as  with  the  leaf 
trouble  due  to  a  lack  of  moisture.  In  fact  it  was  only  after  several  observa- 
tions that  this  writer  was  led  to  believe  that  the  sulphur  was  a  contributor 
to  the  injury  present.  That  four  of  the  vineyards  were  uninjured  may  be 
due  to  the  availability  of  a  greater  amount  of  soil  moisture,  or  to  the  fact 
that  demands  of  the  growing  wood,  leaf  and  fruit  were  not  so  great,  due 
to  less  fruiting  wood  having  been  retained  at  the  winter  pruning. 

This  unexpected  turn  of  affairs  leaves  the  practical  control  of  mildew 
where  it  was  years  ago.  It  is  possible  that  much  smaller  quantities  of 
sulphur  may  be  used  per  acre.  It  is  equally  possible  that  such  a  combina- 
tion of  circumstances  may  not  exist  again  in  many  years.  At  any  rate  the 
desirability  of  dusting  the  vineyards  of  the  Chautauqua  belt  is  such  that 
renewed  experiments  on  a  small  scale  will  be  continued  in  1915. 


Prof.  Bioletti  remarked  that  the  paper  showed  that  the  control  of  this 
disease  in  the  eastern  portions  of  the  United  States  is  very  different  from 
its  control  in  California.  They  sulphur  many  times  during  the  summer, 
while  in  California  the  sulphur  should  be  applied  principally  during  the 
spring. 

President  Alwood:  "If  someone  here  has  had  experience  with  Oidium, 
he  may  state  that  experience." 

Mr.  Henry:  "It  has  been  very  hard  to  control  mildew  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley.  It  has  been  very  bad  this  season.  Sulphur  prevents  mildew  just  as 
long  as  it  lasts  on  the  vines,  but  no  longer." 

Prof.  Bioletti.  "In  regard  to  the  mildew  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  this 
year,  I  went  through  a  large  part  of  Fresno,  Tulare  and  Kern  counties  and 
I  was  told  that  there  was  a  great  deal  of  mildew  in  these  sections.  I  visited 
forty  or  fifty  vineyards  and  did  not  find  a  single  indication  of  mildew.  In 
every  case  it  was  something  else.  It  was  alkali,  or  some  other  trouble  of 
the  vine.  I  have  never  seen  so  little  at  this  time.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
worrying  in  this  region  about  something  that  is  not  mildew  at  all.  Many 
growers  haven't  learned  to  recognize  it  when  they  see  it." 

Mr.  Henry:  "When  you  go  into  a  vineyard  one  day,  and  two  days  after- 
ward you  go  back  and  find  the  vines  are  gray,  I  think  it  is  plain  that  it  is 
mildew." 

Mr.  P.  F.  Lint,  Los  Gatos,  Cal.:  "I  want  to  say  a  word  about  sulphuring. 
The  great  secret  is  to  sulphur  just  as  soon  as  the  leaves  come  out." 

Prof.  Flossfeder  asked  Mr.  Henry  if  the  vines  were  totally  covered  with 
leaves  or  not  when  he  found  what  he  says  was  mildew. 

Mr.  Henry:  "There  were  bunches  of  grapes  on  the  Thompson  Seedless 
vines  right  out  in  the  open.  We  often  find  mildew  on  the  second  crop  and 
not  on  the  first  crop." 


6Gladwin,  F.  E.  Phytopathology  5:—.    1915. 


126  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

STUDIES  ON  PLASMOPARA  VITICOLA   (DOWNEY  MILDEW 

OF  GRAPES). 

By  C.  T.  GREGORY, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  New  York. 


Historical. 

Early  writers  frequently  mention  the  "mildews"  and  "blights"  which 
"sickeneth"  the  vines  but  these  troubles  were  attributed  to  some  visitation 
of  Providence  or  to  atmospheric  disturbances.  As  late  as  1870  the  disease 
was  not  supposed  to  be  caused  by  any  organism,  although  a  conjunct  fungus 
was  always  found.  Saunders  (18G2)  v  as  of  the  opinion  that  the  vine  was 
previously  injured  and  partially  decayed  before  the  fungus  was  able  to  gain 
foothold. 

Lippincott  (1866)  in  a  summary  of  the  various  theories  of  the  origin  of 
the  disease  held  at  that  time,  states  that  they  were  essentially  as  follows: 
that  it  is  spontaneously  developed,  that  the  spores  are  inhaled  through  the 
stomates  and  distributed  throughout  the  plant  and  that  during  moist  weather 
the  plants  become  gorged  with  water  resulting  in  an  incipient  stage  of 
decomposition  so  weakening  the  plants  that  they  are  unable  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  the  mildew.  Lippincott,  himself,  offers  the  explanation  that 
ozone  in  the  air  prevents  the  formation  of  the  mildew  and  that  during  moist 
weather  this  prophylactic  gas  is  not  present,  hence  the  abundance  of  the 
disease  during  such  periods. 

Farlow  (1876)  described  the  disease  and  correctly  attributed  it  to  the 
fungus,  Peronospora  viticola  De  Bary. 

Name   and    Classification. 

The  fungus  was  first  collected  in  America  by  Schweinitz,  in  1834,  but 
was  erroneously  referred  by  him  to  Botrytis  caca  Link.  It  was  studied  by 
Berkeley  and  Curtis  (1848)  who  described  it  as  a  new  species,  Botrytis  viti- 
cola. De  Bary  (1863)  later  studied  the  fungus  carefully,  described  and 
figured  the  sexual  as  well  as  the  asexual  stage  and  referred  it  to  the  genus 
Peronospora,  naming  it  Peronospora  viticola. 

Schroeter  (1886)  subdivided  the  genus  Peronospora  into  Peronospora 
and  Plasmopara.  The  differences  may  be  briefly  stated.  The  conidiophores 
of  Plasmopara  are  monopodially  branched,  never  clearly  dichotomously  as 
in  Peronospora.  The  ultimate  branches  or  sterigmata  of  Plasmopara  are 
dichotomous  or  trichotomous  and  after  the  dissemination  of  the  conidia 
their  ends  are  flat  or  concave.  In  Peronospora  the  sterigmata  are  always 
dichotomous  and  the  ends  are  acutely  or  obtusely  pointed  but  never  flat. 
Finally  the  germination  of  the  conidia  of  Plasmopara  is  typically  by  means 
of  zoospores  or  by  the  entire  contents  of  the  spore  slipping  out  and  then 
producing  a  germ-tube.  Rarely  a  germ-tube  may  be  produced  directly.  The 
conidia  of  Peronospora  always  germinate  by  means  of  a  germ-tube. 

Berlese  and  de  Toni  (1888)  redescribed  the  fungus  as  Plasmopara  viti- 
cola. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 
Characterization. 


127 


The  mycelium  is  coenocytic  and  pleuroblastic.  Istvanffi  (1913)  states 
that  it  may  sometimes  be  intracellular  and  figures  it  so.  The  writer  has 
never  observed  the  mycelium  in  a  position  which  might  be  interpreted  as 
intracellular.  Since  all  observations  were  made  from  stained  sections  which 
were  not  more  than  10/x  thick  all  possibility  of  mistaking  hyphae  passing 


Plate  1.     Infection  of  grape  leaf  by  Plasmopara  viticola. 


128  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

above  or  below  the  cell,  as  being  intracellular,  is  obviated.  In  the  writer's 
opinion  the  mycelium  is  always  intercellular. 

The  diameter  of  the  hyphae  varies  considerably  with  the  conditions  of 
temperature  and  moisture  and  with  the  character  of  the  tissue  in  which  it 
is  located.  Where  the  germ-tube  and  the  conidiophore  pass  through  the 
stomate  it  is  about  I/JL  in  diameter  (PI.  I,  fig.  1).  In  certain  cases  the 
diameter  of  the  mycelium  may  be  as  much  as  40  to  60/*  (PI.  I,  fig.  5).  In 
the  canes  where  the  tissues  are  firm  and  the  cell  walls  relatively  thick,  the 
hyphae  are  smaller  and  of  more  uniform  diameter.  In  the  leaves  the  hyphae 
tend  to  fill  the  large,  irregular,  intercellular  spaces  and  hence  are  of  greater 
diameter.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  in  young  tissue  the  mycelium  is 
of  greater  diameter  and  more  abundant  than  in  the  more  mature  parts. 
Indeed,  in  the  very  old,  diseased  areas,  particularly  after  the  period  of 
oospore  formation,  the  mycelium  seems  to  disappear  almost  entirely. 

The  younger  parts  of  the  mycelium  are  filled  with  a  dense,  finely 
granular  protoplasm  which,  with  age,  becomes  coarser  and  profusely  vacuo- 
lated.  When  carefully  stained  the  protoplasm  exhibits  a  netted  structure 
seemingly  made  up  of  numerous  fine  strands.  At  irregular  intervals  upon 
these  strands  occur  deeper  staining  granules  whose  exact  nature  is  not 
evident. 

The  mycelial  wall  is  very  thin  and  according  to  Mangin  (1890),  is  com- 
posed of  a  mixture  of  cellulose  and  callose.  The  action  of  various  stains  may 
serve  as  an  indication  of  its  nature.  When  untreated  mycelium  is  stained 
with  chloriodide  of  zinc  there  appears  after  a  short  time  a  brown  color.  If 
previously  boiled  in  potassium  hydroxide  the  mycelium  becomes  a  deep 
reddish  purple  with  this  stain.  This  is  in  accordance  with  Mangin's  state- 
ment to  the  effect  that  boiling  potassium  hydroxide  will  dissolve  the  mask- 
ing callose  leaving  the  pure  cellulose. 

The  nuclei  are  commonly  globose  but  in  certain  places  they  may  be 
oval  or  at  times  almost  linear.  They  are  especially  abundant  in  the  younger 
portions  of  the  mycelium.  Istvanffi  states  that  they  divide  karyokinetically. 

The  haustoria  are  produced  very  profusely  and  occur  in  all  parts  of  the 
plant  in  which  the  mycelium  is  to  be  found.  In  the  leaves  of  the  resistant 
varieties  the  haustoria  are  similar  in  every  respect  to  those  found  in  the 
more  susceptible  vines  except  that  they  are  usually  smaller  and  are  never 
so  abundant. 

The  method  of  haustorial  formation  is  similar  to  that  described  by 
Grant  Smith  (1900)  for  the  Erysiphae.  At  first  a  very  small  tube  is  produced 
laterally  from  the  mycelium  into  the  host  cell-wall  which  becomes  greatly 
thickened  at  this  point.  The  exact  cause  of  this  thickening  is  not  apparent. 
It  would  seem  that,  if  it  is  caused  by  some  enzyme  producing  gelatinization 
of  the  wall,  as  is  suggested  by  Cuboni  (1889),  the  adjacent  portions  of  the 
wall  would  also  swell  but  this  is  not  the  case.  The  other  possible  view  is 
that  it  is  an  indication  of  an  attempt  of  the  host  to  exclude  the  haustorium 
hence  is  the  result  of  additional  depositions  at  this  point  by  the. protoplasm 
of  the  irritated  cell.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  haustorium  continues  to  grow 
inward  still  enclosed  in  its  sheath  of  host  wall.  After  reaching  a  variable 
length  the  end  of  the  tube  gradually  swells  into  a  globose  sac  accompanied 
to  a  certain  point  by  the  swelling  of  its  sheath  (PI.  II,  fig.  1).  After  attain- 
ing about  one-half  of  its  mature  size  the  terminal  portion  bursts  or  dis- 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 

.    Plat*    I 


129 


Plate  2.     Haustoria  and  mycelium  of  Plasmopara  viticola. 


solves  the  sheath.  Thus  in  many  of  the  mature  haustoria  there  may  be 
seen  about  the  base  a  goblet-shaped  collar  pierced  by  the  greatly  attenuated 
stem  of  the  haustorium  (PI.  II,  figs.  2  and  3).  After  penetrating  the  cell  wall, 
the  terminal  portion  continues  its  growth  for  a  certain  period,  never,  how- 
ever, completely  filling  the  cell  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  certain  of  the 
Erysiphaceae.  It  is  this  terminal,  globose  portion  which  constitutes  the 
absorbing  area  of  the  haustorium. 

In  the  meantime  the  plasma  membrane  of  the  cell  is  gradually  pressed 
back  by  the  advancing  haustorium  and  often  may  be  very  closely  appressed 
to  the  latter  but  never  penetrated  by  it  (PI.  II,  figs.  2  to  5). 

The  haustorium  is  thin  walled.  The  presence  of  the  host  cell  wall  about 
the  partially  swollen  tip  or  the  space  between  the  plasma  membrane  and  the 
haustorium  may  give  the  impression  that  the  wall  is  thick  as  has  been  stated 
by  Istvanffi  (1913)  and  others.  The  former  states  that  the  wall  is  sometimes 
thin  and  sometimes  very  thick.  It  is  evident  that  in  the  first  instance  he  has 
observed  the  condition  in  which  the  plasma  membrane  is  closely  appressed 
to  the  haustorium  and  in  the  second,  the  encompassing  sheath  of  host  cell- 
wall. 


130  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

Within  the  haustorium  is  a  small  bit  of  protoplasm  in  which  is  imbedded 
a  nucleus.  In  certain  cases  the  writer  has  observed  two  nuclei  (PI.  II,  figs. 
3  to  5).  Istvanffi  (1913)  has  reported  as  many  as  four.  In  his  estimation 
these  are  produced  by  the  division  of  a  single  nucleus  which  entered  the 
haustorium  during  the  early  stages  of  its  development. 

The  size  of  the  haustoria  is  exceedingly  variable.  According  to  Istvanffi 
they  are  4  to  10/u,  (rarely  15  to  20^0  at  their  largest  diameter  by  4  to  12/j. 
(rarely  20  to  25/i)  long.  These  measurements  correspond  very  closely  with 
those  made  by  the  writer.  The  stems  may  attain  nearly  one-half  of  the  total 
length  of  the  haustorium,  varying  from  1.5  to  5.5//  in  length  and  from  .4  to 
1.0/i  in  diameter. 

The  method  of  differentiating  the  cell  wall  from  the  haustorium  was  by 
the  combination  of  certain  stains.  After  some  experimentation,  it  was  found 
that  ruthenium  red  and  methyl  green  gave  the  clearest  coloration.  In  this 
way  the  cell  walls  were  tinted  a  deep  red  and  the  mycelium  green.  The 
safranin-gentian  violet — orange  stain  also  gives  very  good  differentiation 
showing  the  relation  to  the  plasma  membrane  but  since  it  leaves  the  cell- 
wall  practically  unstained  it  is  unsuitable  for  that  aspect  of  the  problem. 
A  study  of  sections  stained  by  both  methods  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the 
relation  of  parts. 

The  formation  of  conidiophores  commences  after  a  sufficient  period  of 
mycelial  development,  the  time  varying  with  the  organ  attacked,  the  tempera- 
ture and  the  humidity.  The  mycelium  begins  to  mass  beneath  the  stomata 
forming  what  has  been  termed  the  cushion  (PI.  II,  fig.  6).  From  these  hypae 
arise  many  other  smaller  ones  which  push  upward  through  the  stomata.  In 
order  to  traverse  the  small  opening  they  must  become  greatly  attenuated 
but  immediately  after  their  egress  they  abruptly  swell  to  the  normal  size 
of  the  conidiophore.  As  many  as  twenty  such  branches  may  arise  through 
a  single  stomate  but  more  commonly  there  are  from  four  to  six. 

In  certain  cases  the  fruiting  mycelium  may  burst  directly  through  the 
epidermis.  This  has  been  observed  frequently  on  flower  peduncles  which 
were  heavily  infected  (PI.  II,  fig.  7).  In  such  cases  it  appears  that  the  epi- 
dermal cells  are  killed,  then  crushed  by  the  pressure  of  the  mycelium  beneath 
and  finally  disrupted.  There  is  no  evidence  that  it  is  a  process  of  solution. 
On  the  young  fruit  the  mycelium  takes  advantage  of  the  lenticle-like  struc- 
tures for  its  egress. 

The  conidiophores  are  produced  most  readily  in  the  absence  of  light, 
in  relatively  humid  conditions  and  at  a  temperature  of  18°  to  20°  C.  The 
other  conditions  being  favorable  the  temperature  is  of  rather  minor  import- 
ance. The  method  ordinarily  employed  to  obtain  an  abundance  of  conidia 
for  germination  studies  is  to  enclose  infected  leaves,  on  which  there  is  no 
evidence  of  conidiophore  formation,  in  a  moist  chamber  during  the  night 
(about  12  to  20  hours).  A  smaller  percentage  of  conidia  frequently  have 
been  obtained  during  the  day  by  a  similar  treatment.  The  light  was  in  such 
cases  very  subdued.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the  statements  of  Istvanffi 
(1913),  Cuboni  (1889)  and  others  to  the  effect  that  conidiophores  are  pro- 
duced only  during  the  night  or  in  subdued  light. 

The  conidiophores  are  from  300  to  500^  in  height  and  7  to  9/A  in  diameter. 
Istvanffi  states  that  they  average  800  to  1200/x  in  height  and  that  occasionally 
one  may  attain  the  height  of  1500/A.  There  are  usually  about  six  monopodial 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  131 

branches  which  are  in  turn  branched  several  times.  Each  branch  is  termi- 
nated by  two  to  four,  short  sterigmata  whose  ends,  after  the  dispersal  of  the 
conidia,  are  concaved.  The  sterigmata  are  about  5  to  12/t  long  and  2  to  3,u 
in  diameter. 

The  walls  of  the  conidiophores  are  thicker  than  those  of  the  mycelium 
and  are  composed  at  least  partially  of  cellulose,  staining  a  bluish  purple  with 
zinc  chloriodide.  At  irregular  intervals  in  the  primary  axis,  branches  o'r  the 
sterigmata,  there  occur  septa  which  are  very  much  thicker  than  the  walls. 
These  are  claimed  by  Mangin  (1890)  not  to  be  true  cross-walls  but  merely 
plugs  of  callose.  When  stained  with  zinc  chloriodide  they  are  not  tinted 
but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mycelium,  do  so  after  the  conidiophore  has  been 
boiled  in  potassium  hydroxide. 

To  determine  whether  the  conidiophores  are  composed  of  p.u.re  cellulose 
they  were  treated  with  a  cellulose  solvent,  cuprammonia  (Schweizer's 
reagent).  A  preliminary  observation  was  made  of  the  action  of  this  -^plvent 
upon  cotton  fibers  (pure  cellulose).  The  first  evidence  of  its.  action  is  a 
swelling  of  the  fibers  to  at  least  double  their  original  diameter,  followed 
shortly  by  their  rapid  disappearance.  The  walls  of  the  conidiophores*,  when 
treated  in  the.  same  manner,  also  swelled  to  about  twice  their  normal  thick- 
ness but  they  do  not  then  rapidly  dissolve  (PL  III,  fig.  1).  The  basal  portion 
exhibits  a  peculiar  reaction,  seeming  to  burst  outward  and  to  disintegrate 
except  for  a  thin  inner  sheath  (PI.  Ill,  figs.  1  and  3).  Sometimes  the  large 
proportion  of  the  conidiophore  assumes  this  aspect,  but  in  practically  every 
case  the  distal  end  remains  apparently  intact.  A  logical  interpretation  of 
these  reactions  is  that  the  conidiophores  are  composed  of  cellulose  or  a 
cellulose-like  substance  but  are  lined  with  another  material,  possibly  callose. 

Before  the  formation  of  the  conidia,  the  conidiophore  is  filled  with 
protoplasm  which  is  abundantly  provided  with  nuclei.  The  conidia  are 
formed  by  the  swelling  of  the  end  of  the  sterigmata  into  which  a  portion 
of  the  protoplasm  passes.  After  the  mature  size  is  attained  a  septum  is 
laid  down  separating  the  conidium  from  the  sterigma.  According  to  Istvanffi 
(1913)  a  single  nucleus  passes  into  each  spore  at  this  time  and  its  division 
produces  the  multinucleate  condition  obtaining  in  the  mature  conidium.  He 
also  states  that  the  cross-wall  is  laid  down  when  the  conidium  is  from  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  its  mature  size. 

The  mature  conidia  are  extremely  variable  in  size  and  shape.  Some  are 
almost  globose,  others  are  long  and  narrow,  but  the  majority  are  ovoid. 
They  are  attached  to  the  sterigmata  at  their  smallest  end.  Disarticulation 
occurs  very  easily,  being  produced  by  the  breaking  or  solution  of  a  small 
lenticular  area  which  separates  the  conidium  from  the  sterigma  (PI.  Ill,  fig. 
5).  The  ease  with  which  this  substance  is  broken  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
only  a  slight  jarring  is  necessary  to  release  the  spore.  It  is  also  very 
readily  soluble  in  water  hence  the  exceeding  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  mount 
in  water  of  the  attached  spores  for  microscopic  examination.  One  may 
observe  many  conidia  still  fastened  to  their  sterigmata  when  in  the  dry 
state  but  if  a  drip  of  water  is  placed  upon  the  mass  in  a  moment  all  of  the 
conidia  will  be  freed. 

Cornu  (1882)  mentions  this  substance  and  states  that  it  is  due  to  its 
extreme  solubility  that  the  conidia  are  freed  during  moist  weather.  He 
figures  it,  however,  as  a  wall  which  is  so  tightly  compressed  between  the 


132 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Plate  3.     Fructifications  of  Plasmopara  viticola. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  133 

conidium  and  the  sterigma  that  it  bulges  out  on  either  side.  Mangin  (1891) 
on  the  other  hand,  having  made  a  complete  study  of  this  subject,  figures 
this  disjunctive  wall  as  lenticular.  He  claims  that  it  is  composed  of  callose 
which  is,  however,  insoluble  in  water  but  explains  this  anomaly  by  the 
theory  that  there  is  some  chemical  change  in  the  composition  which  renders 
it  soluble. 

In  size  the  conidia  average  from  11  to  18/i  by  15  to  31/t  but  in  certain 
cases  are  much  larger  than  this.  Istvanffi  (1913)  distinguishes  three  types, 
the  microconidia,  which  are  of  the  size  and  shape  usually  observed,  the 
macroconidia,  having  a  size  of  25  to  35/u  by  40  to  55/i  and  finally  the  megalo- 
conidia  which  are  much  larger  than  the  macroconidia,  more  or  less  globose, 
contain  15  to  20  nuclei  and  which  are  produced  without  the  intervention  of 
a  sterigma. 

At  the  small  end  of  the  conidium  there  are  usually  two  minute  projec- 
tions, the  remnants  of  the  attachment  to  the  sterigma.  At  the  opposite, 
larger  end  is  a  papilla  or  projection  through  which  germination  occurs. 

The  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  conidium  lies  between  that  of  the 
conidiophore  wall  and  the  mycelium.  It  is  practically  uniform  except  at 
the  papilla  where  it  is  very  thin  and  delicate.  The  composition  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  conidiophore,  staining  reddish-purple  with  zinc  chloriodide 
except  at  the  papilla  which  remains  colorless.  Within  each  conidium  there 
are  several  nuclei  corresponding  to  the  zoospores  which  are  ultimately 
formed  in  it. 

On  susceptible  varieties,  like  the  Delaware,  Niagara  and  V.  bicolor,  the 
downy  mass  of  conidiophores  and  conidia  is  usually  very  dense  and  when 
disturbed,  a  tiny  white  cloud  of  spores  arises.  On  the  more  resistant 
forms  the  growth  is  only  slightly  developed  even  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions,  appearing  most  frequently  in  isolated  clusters  which  correspond 
to  the  brown  punctations  on  the  upper  surface. 

The  Sexual  spores,  oospores,  are  formed  in  the  intercellular  spaces 
largely  within  the  palisade  or  spongy  parenchyme  tissues  of  the  leaf,  and 
almost  invariably  closely  adjacent  to  the  principal  veins.  The  writer  has 
very  seldom  found  them  in  the  tissue  about  the  margin  or  in  the  blade  of 
the  leaf.  Bailion  (1888),  Istvanffi  (1913)  and  Lamson-Scribner  (1886)  have 
reported  finding  them  in  the  cortex  of  the  stem  and  in  the  berries. 

The  development  of  the  oospores  has  not  been  clearly  followed  but 
several  different  stages  have  been  observed  and  in  order  that  these  may  be 
correctly  interpreted  and  arranged  in  their  proper  sequence,  a  comparison 
is  made  here  with  the  oospore  development  of  Plasmopora  alpinum,  described 
by  Rosenberg  (1903). 

The  oogonium  is  multinucleate  (PI.  IV,  fig.  1)  and  number  of  nuclei 
counted  in  one  case  being  about  forty.  This  is  very  similar  to  the  oogonium 
of  P.  alpinum  which  Rosenberg  states  has  forty-five.  In  the  case  of  P. 
alpinum  the  antheridia  are  ciavate  and  contain  about  four  or  five  nuclei. 
Though  many  hundreds  of  stained  sections  have  been  examined,  the  writer 
has  only  once  observed  a  structure  which  might  be  interpreted  as  an 
antheridium.  It  was  much  smaller  than  the  oogonium,  ciavate  and  arose 
from  the  hyphae  immediately  beneath  the  former  (PI.  IV,  fig.  2).  Both 
Viala  (1893)  and  Cornu  (1882)  figure  similar  structures  but  Farlow  (1876) 


134 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Plate  4.     A  few  stages  in  the  development  of  the  oospore. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  135 

represents  the  antheridium  as  a  long,  slender  thread  partially  encircling 
the  oogonium. 

Briefly  stated  the  nuclear  history  of  the  oogonium  of  P.  alpinum  is  as 
follows.  First,  there  is  a  single  mitotic  division,  after  which  all  of  the  nuclei 
but  one  migrate  to  the  periphery.  Simultaneously  there  appears  at  the 
center  a  small  dense  body  which  seems  to  attract  the  single  remaining 
nucleus  to  it.  This  is  considered  by  Rosenberg  to  be  the  coenocentrum. 
Following  this,  another  mitosis  of  the  central  nucleus  occurs,  which  does 
not,  however,  occur  in  all  of  the  nuclei  at  the  periphery.  One  of  the  sister 
nuclei  at  the  center  then  migrates  to  the  periphery  and  gradually  disinte- 
grates. At  this  time  one  nucleus  from  the  antheridium  passes  to  the  center 
of  the  oogonium  and  after  a  time  fuses  with  the  female  nucleus. 

In  Plasmopara  viticola,  certain  of  these  stages  have  been  observed.  In 
many  instances  a  single,  well-developed  nucleus  occurs  at  the  center  near  a 
well-defined,  denser,  body,  the  coenocentrum  (PI.  IV,  figs.  3  and  4)  while 
outside  of  the  partially  developed  oospore  wall  are  numerous  irregular, 
darker-staining  bodies  which  may  be  interpreted  as  disintegrating  nuclei 
(PI.  IV,  figs.  3  and  4).  At  times  there  may  be  seen  two  or  more  nuclei 
within  the  developing  oospore  but  the  fully  matured  oospore  contains  only 
a  single  nucleus  without  the  accompanying  coenocentrum  (PI.  IV,  fig.  6). 

The  writer  has  never  observed  an  antheridium  in  connection  with  the 
more  advanced  stages  of  development  of  the  oospore  in  the  many  hundreds 
of  sections  obtained.  This  fact  is  amenable  to  two  interpretations,  either 
that  these  oospores  develop  apogamously  or  that  the  antheridia  very  quickly 
disintegrate. 

The  protoplasm  of  the  oospore  is  granular,  rather  yellowish  brown  and 
filled  with  numerous,  refringent  globules.  At  times  the  entire  center  is 
occupied  with  a  large,  round,  hyalin  area,  having  the  appearance  of  a  large 
vacuole.  The  oospores  are  from  25  to  35/u,  in  diameter.  The  inner  wall  or 
endosporium  of  the  oospore  is  smooth,  colorless  and  relatively  thick.  This 
wall  is  formed  about  the  oosphere  immediately  following  fertilization.  It  is 
apparently  a  deposition  from  the  protoplasm  (PI.  IV,  fig.  5).  Surrounding 
the  endosporium  are  the  disintegrating  remnants  of  nuclei  lying  in  the 
periplasm.  It  is  probable  that  the  periplasm  contracts  about  the  endosporium 
thus  forming  the  irregular,  brown  exosporium.  The  oospore  lies  within  the 
thickened  persistent,  oogonial  wall.  The  writer  has  seen  many  oospore-like 
bodies,  having  spiny  walls  but  since  they  are  as  frequently  on  the  outside 
of  the  leaf  as  within  it  is  apparent  that  they  are  not  spiny  forms  of  the 
oospores  of  Plasmopara  viticola. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  by  the  writer  (1913)  there  were  many  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  germinate  the  oospores  of  Plasmopara  viticola  but,  not- 
withstanding these  failures,  two  theories  were  evolved  as  to  the  probable 
method  of  germination.  On  the  one  hand  we  find  Millardet  (1883),  Frechou 
(1885),  Richon,  Viala  (1893)  and  others  who  considered  that  zoospores  were 
formed  directly  from  the  protoplasm  of  the  oospore.  On  the  other  hand, 
Cornu  (1882)  and  Prillieux  (1883)  were  equally  certain  that  the  oospores 
produced  a  typical  conidiophore  bearing  conidia. 

The  writer  (1913)  published  an  account  of  germination  by  means  of  a 
promycelium  bearing  a  single  conidium  (PI.  Ill,  fig.  11).  Shortly  afterwards. 


136  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Ravaz  and  Verge  (1913)  also  described  an  exactly  similar  method  fully  cor- 
roborating these  observations. 

Oospore  germination  may  begin  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  February, 
though  at  this  time  it  is  not  as  abundant  as  later  in  the  spring,  March  till 
June. 

The  oospores  will  retain  their  vitality  for  at  least  a  year.  Leaves  con- 
taining oospores  were  collected  in  October,  1912,  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
ground  during  the  winter  of  1912-13  and  then  kept  in  the  laboratory  in  a 
thoroughly  dried  condition  until  March,  1914.  At  this  time  they  were 
moistened  and  after  being  maintained  about  three  weeks  in  these  conditions 
germination  occurred  in  a  small  percentage  of  the  oospores. 

Freezing  seems  to  be  necessary,  since  germination  has  only  been  obtained 
from  those  oospores  which  have  been  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground 
until  at  least  January  or  February. 

The  conditions  essential  for  germination  are  very  similar  to  those 
necessary  for  conidial  germination.  A  temperature  of  about  23°  C.  and  an 
abundant  supply  of  moisture  seems  to  be  optimum.  The  leaves  are  allowed 
to  rot  for  a  week  or  more  in  a  warm  moist  place  and  thereafter  it  requires 
usually  about  five  to  eight  days  in  order  to  obtain  germination. 

The  time  necessary  for  the  complete  formation  of  the  primary  conidium 
and  the  emission  of  the  zoospores  is  about  24  hours.  The  germination  of 
two  oospores  was  followed  from  the  time  that  the  conidia  were  8^  and  11/i 
respectively  in  diameter  at  12:35.  The  promycelium  was  still  completely 
filled  with  protoplasm.  At  4.45  both  conidia  were  full  size,  being  27.3/x  and 
39/i  respectively  in  diameter  and  the  septum  separating  them  from  the 
promycelium  was  formed.  The  next  morning  they  were  in  a  similar  con- 
dition but  at  12  m.  germination,  by  means  of  zoospores,  occurred. 

Numerous  motile  bodies  have  been  observed  in  cultures  which  apparently 
contained  no  germinating  oospores  and  it  was  at  first  thought  that  possibly 
germination  might  occur  by  zoospores  directly  but  when  these  motile  bodies 
were  fixed  in  osmic  acid  and  stained  with  methylene  blue  it  could  be  seen 
readily  that  they  possessed  but  one  fiagellum.  Furthermore,  their  globose 
shape  and  size  (10  to  13/0  preclude  the  possibility  of  their  being  zoospores 
of  Plasmopara  viticola.  Melhus  (1914)  has  observed  a  parasite  of  oospores 
which  produces  similar  zoospores,  hence  it  may  be  that  we  are  also  dealing 
here  with  such  a  parasite. 

With  these  points  in  mind  it  appears  certain  that  early  spring  infec- 
tions arise  from  the  oospores.  Though  the  process  has  not  been  followed, 
certain  observations  have  indicated  that  this  is  the  case. 

The  leaves  lying  on  the  ground  about  the  vines  during  the  winter,  are 
in  an  advanced  stage  of  decomposition  by  spring,  thus  only  a  short  period 
of  warm,  rainy  weather  is  necessary  to  complete  this  process.  The  driving 
rains,  also  occurring  at  this  time,  aid  in  breaking  up  the  thoroughly  rotted 
leaves,  thus  more  or  less  completely  exposing  the  oospores  and  facilitating 
conidial  formation  and  dissemination. 

The  conidia  may  germinate  in  the  soil  water  or  may  themselves  be 
spattered  to  the  lower  leaves  of  the  vine  during  heavy  rains.  Arbois  de 
Jubainville  (1883)  has  stated  that  he  has  seen  mildewed  spots  on  the  leaves 
opposite  bits  of  mud.  The  writer  has  also  observed  the  mildew  in  the  season 
on  the  mud-bespattered  leaves.  This  would  indicate  that  some  spores,  either 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  137 

zoospores  or  conidia  were  carried  there  through  the  agency  of  the  rain.  It 
is,  moreover,  well  known  that  the  first  spots  to  appear  in  the  early  spring 
or  summer  are  on  the  lower  leaves. 

Millardet  thought  that  the  seedlings  growing  through  the  layers  of 
oospores-filled  leaves  are  infected  by  the  zoospores  produced  in  the  oospores 
and  the  conidia  resulting  from  these  primary  infections  serve  as  sources 
of  infections  upon  the  surrounding  vines.  This  hypothesis,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  oospore  germination  by  zoospores,  may  be  tenable  in  France,  but 
in  this  country  where  seedlings  never,  or  at  least  very  seldom,  appear  in  the 
vineyards,  we  must  search  for  some  other  explanation. 

Noack  (1899)  states  that  in  Brazil  the  oospores  are  unnecessary  since 
the  leaves  are  green  the  year  round  and  the  summer  stage  is  constantly 
present. 

At  one  time  the  writer  thought  that  possibly  the  mycelium  of  the 
fungus  could  hibernate  in  the  roots  or  canes  of  the  diseased  vine  and,  pro- 
ducing conidia  in  the  spring,  serve  as  a  source  of  infection.  During  the 
auiumn  of  1912  roots  and  canes  of  certain  vines  which  were  known  to  be 
badly  infected  each  year  were  planted  in  the  greenhouse,  care  being  taken 
not  to  bring  in  soil  which  might  contain  oospores. 

These  vines  grew  until  the  following  July  without  any  evidence  of  the 
mildew,  though  they  were  well  watered  and  an  attempt  made  to  induce  a 
succulent  growth  which  would  probably  favor  any  mycelial  development. 

Istvanffi  (1913)  found  the  mycelium  and  conidia  within  the  bud  scales  in 
autumn  but  was  not  able  to  prove  that  a  diseased  cane  or  leaves  develop 
from  these  buds,  as  Cuboni  (1889)  thought  possible. 

Frechou  (1885)  states  that  the  mycelium  may  hibernate  in  the  leaves 
which  do  not  become  moist  enough  to  rot.  After  five  or  six  months  this 
mycelium  may  produce  conidiophores  bearing  conidia.  He  points  out  that 
it  is  extremely  rare  that  there  will  not  be  enough  moisture  during  the 
autumn,  winter  and  spring  to  rot  the  leaves,  hence  this  method  need  hardly 
be  seriously  considered. 

During  the  winter  of  1914  the  writer  had  an  opportunity  to  test  the 
possibility  of  such  a  method  of  hibernation.  Leaves  of  a  wild  vine  which 
were  known  to  have  been  badly  infected,  were  found  in  a  fine  state  of 
preservation,  showing  no  evidence  of  decomposition  and  in  every  way  ideal 
for  hibernation  of  the  mycelium  as  described  by  Frechou.  They  were  placed 
in  a  warm,  moist  situation,  in  the  hope  that  conidiophores  would  be  pro- 
duced but  without  success,  indicating  that  the  mycelium  does  not  hibernate 
in  this  manner. 

It  is  probable  that  the  principal,  if  not  the  only,  method  of  hibernation 
is  by  means  of  the  oospores. 

After  the  formation  of  the  first  crop  of  conidia  from  the  primary  infec- 
tions the  spread  of  the  mildew  becomes  much  more  rapid.  The  conidia  are 
blown  to  other  vines  where  they  readily  germinate  if  proper  conditions 
exist.  The  principal  factors  influencing  the  germination  of  the  conidia,  aside 
from  the  presence  of  moisture  are,  the  temperature,  and  the  proper  age  of 
the  conidiuin. 

Viala  (1893)  gives  three  types  of  germination  of  the  conidia,  namely,  by 
zoospores,  by  the  emission  of  the  entire  contents  of  the  conidium  and  by  a 
germ-tube  directly.  Istvanffi  (1913)  also  figures  the  same  types  and  states 


138  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

that  germination  by  means  of  the  germ-tube  occurs  only  in  moist  air. 
The  writer  has  never  observed  this  type.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases 
zoospores  are  formed.  Very  rarely  the  entire  contents  of  the  conidium 
emerges,  forms  a  wall  about  itself,  and  eventually  produces  a  tube. 

In  one  case  a  number  of  conidia  were  observed  which  produced  several 
amoeba-like  bodies,  emerging  in  each  case  from  the  apical  end  of  the 
conidium.  After  a  short  period,  during  which  they  moved  about  in  the 
typical  amoeba-like  manner,  they  came  to  rest  and  became  globose  as  do 
the  zoospores. 

According  to  Viala  (1893),  the  optimum  temperature  for  germination  is 
from  28°  to  30°  C.  At  this  temperature  the  zoospores  are  produced  in  about 
one-half  hour.  At  temperatures  from  10°  to  17°  C.,  germination  only  occurs 
after  two  or  three  days  and  a  temperature  of  2°  to  5°  C.,  prevented  germina- 
tion entirely.  Istvanffi  (1913),  on  the  other  hand,  states  that  the  optimum 
temperature  for  germination  is  from  20°  to  22°  C.,  while  at  28°  to  30°  C. 
germination  practically  ceases,  being  feeble  at  the  end  of  six  to  ten  hours. 
He  found  that  after  two  or  three  hours  there  is  profuse  germination  at  a 
temperature  of  14°  to  15°  becoming  slight  at  8°  C.  Melhus  (1911)  states 
that  a  temperature  of  10°  C:  is  most  favorable  to  conidial  germination. 

During  the  summer  of  1912  numerous  attempts  were  made  to  germinate 
the  conidia  at  room  temperatures,  70°  to  80°  F.,  and  often  as  high  as 
90°  F.  In  some  cases  there  was  absolutely  no  germination  after  two  or 
three  days.  All  variety  of  condition  were  given  except  to  change  the 
temperature  because  at  this  time  facilities  were  lacking  for  that  type  of 
experiment. 

In  1913  an  ice-box  was  used  in  which  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  easily 
could  be  maintained.  At  this  temperature  fully  95  per  cent  germination 
was  always  obtained  in  two  to  six  hours,  averaging  about  three  hours.  At 
70°  F.  only  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  conidia  germinated,  in  about  one-third  of 
the  time,  however,  while  at  80°  to  90°  F.  there  was  no  germination.  When 
the  slides  holding  the  spore-laden  drops  were  placed  directly  upon  the  ice, 
thus  obtaining  a  temperature  of  35°  to  41°  F.,  a  slight  germination  by  means 
of  zoospores  occurred  in  about  twenty-four  hours.  Another  point  which 
was  observed  concerning  the  spores  maintained  at  low  temperature  is  that 
the  zoospores  continue  active  for  a  much  longer  time  than  at  the  higher 
temperatures.  In  the  latter  case  the  writer  (1913)  has  found  that  it  is  com- 
mon for  them  to  rest  in  about  thirty  minutes  and  to  have  completely  germi- 
nated in  three  to  twelve  hours.  In  the  former,  the  zoospores  are  still  active 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty  hours  after  germination.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
writer  the  optimum  temperature  for  germination  lies  between  50°  and  60°  F. 

Speaking  of  the  effect  of  light  upon  the  conidia  Cuboni  (1889:33)  says: 
"the  conidia  which  have  been  exposed  to  an  intense  light  for  some  time, 
according  to  my  observations,  are  sterilized  and  unable  to  germinate." 
Istvanffl  (1913)  makes  a  similar  statement  to  the  effect  that  conidia  placed 
in  water  in  the  morning  and  maintained  in  obscure  illumination  germinate 
during  the  afternoon  while  those  which  were  placed  in  strong  light  did  not 
germinate  until  the  following  morning.  Melhus  (1911)  states,  however,  that 
if  the  temperature  is  low,  light  will  have  no  effect  on  germination. 

In  this  connection  the  writer  has  conducted  experiments  and  made 
certain  observations.  Conidia  were  placed  on  ice  in  a  glass  chamber  and 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  139 

exposed  to  strong  sunlight  but  so  far  as  could  be  observed  the  germination 
was  as  rapid  as  in  the  case  of  spores  placed  in  an  ice-box.  Furthermore, 
conidia  have  been  placed  in  a  drop  of  water  suspended  from  the  cover  of  a 
Van  Tiegham  cell  and  the  culture  placed  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope, 
for  continuous  observation.  In  this  case  a  strong  light  continually  passes 
through  the  culture.  By  this  method  of  procedure  germination  has  been 
obtained  in  one-half  to  one  hour.  In  our  opinion  the  failure  to  germinate, 
apparently  caused  by  strong  light,  may  be  due  rather  to  a  higher  tempera- 
ture. Indeed,  Farlow  (1876)  states  that  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  heats  the 
water  causing  such  rapid  evaporation  that  germination  could  not  occur. 

According  to  Istvanffi  (1913)  a  certain  proportion  of  the  conidia  which 
do  not  germinate  are  still  immature  even  though  they  may  be  of  full-size.  He 
says  .  .  .  (free  translation)  "the  conidia  in  which  karykinesis  is  already 
completed  are  not  necessarily  mature  even  though  they  have  attained  their 
full  size.  We  have  observed  that  the  conidium  still  undergoes  certain  trans- 
formations if  they  are  maintained  in  a  moist  atmosphere,  namely,  that  the 
plasma  becomes  more  reticulated  in  structure.  These  changes  occupy 
about  three  or  four  hours.  During  this  period  the  vacuoles  become  larger 
.  .  .  and  if  examined  in  water  the  plasma  appears  granular." 

It  is  certain  that  one  who  has  studied  conidial  germination  for  some 
time  will  be  able  to  state  readily  and  with  a  fair  degree  of  certainty,  which 
conidia  will  not  germinate.  To  describe  this  distinction  is  difficult  but  in 
general  it  may  be  said  to  be  that  the  protoplasm  of  immature  conidia  appears 
more  finely  granular,  denser  and  to  have  a  much  deeper  greenish  color. 
Before  germination  the  protoplasm  becomes  more  hyalin  and  less  dense 
probably  due  to  the  appearance  of  the  numerous  vacuoles,  noted  by 
Istvanffi. 

On  the  other  hand  the  conidia  may  be  too  old  to  germinate,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  previously  by  the  writer  (1913).  Such  conidia  are  characterized 
by  the  coarsely  granular,  brown  protoplasm. 

A  third  type  of  conidia,  to  which  Istvanffi  takes  exception,  has  also  been 
described  by  the  writer,  as  "partly  or  wholly  filled  with  a  highly  refractive 
drop  which  appears  to  be  oleaginous  in  nature".  Istvanffi  admits  that  a 
conidium  treated  with  osmic  acid  becomes  a  deep  brown  indicating  the  pos- 
sible presence  of  some  oily  substance  but  he  claims  that  the  oil  is  present 
as  minute  drops.  In  this  same  connection  both  Viala  (1893)  and  Patrigeon 
(1887)  state  that  there  are  numerous  brilliant  or  refringent  drops  present  in 
the  conidium.  At  the  same  time,  Istvanffi  states  that  the  supposed  error  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  vacuoles  are  very  abundant  in  the  conidium  and  that 
these,  being  clear,  "may  resemble  the  ordinary  refringence  of  the  drops  of 
oil."  It  will  be  noted  that  the  writer  stated  that  these  refringent  bodies 
remain  in  the  conidium  after  germination.  If  vacuoles  had  been  mistaken 
for  independent  bodies  in  the  protoplasm,  would  they  remain  as  such  in  an 
empty  conidium?  There  is  no  question  that  in  some  cases,  a  clear,  highly 
refringent,  and  well-defined  body  or  "drop"  remains  in  the  conidium  after 
germination.  Its  exact  composition  has  not  been  determined  but  the  possi- 
bilities are  either  oil  or  glycogen. 

The  vitality  of  the  conidia  varies  with  the  conditions  of  humidity  and 
temperature.  Istvanffi  states  that  at  a  temperature  of  8°  to  10°  C.  they 
will  retain  their  vitality  for  two  or  three  weeks  and  if  placed  directly  upon 


140  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

ice  may  be  germinated  after  sixty  days  if  optimum  conditions  be  afforded. 
In  warm,  dry  air  they  perish  in  five  days. 

The  writer  has  germinated  conidia  which  have  been  kept  for  two  weeks 
at  a  temperature  of  10°  C.,  while  those  kept  in  a  moist  chamber  at  room 
temperature  lost  their  vitality  in  from  seven  to  ten  days.  It  seems  safe 
to  assume  that  the  conidia  will  retain  their  vitality  in  nature  about  a  week. 

The  season  makes  no  apparent  difference  in  the  germinative  power  of 
the  conidia.  As  good  germination  has  been  obtained  in  October  from  conidia 
collected  on  wild  vines  as  during  the  summer. 

The  germination  of  the  conidia  has  been  described  by  the  writer  (1913) 
but  will  be  rewritten  at  this  time  in  order  that  changes  in  certain  details 
may  be  more  intelligibly  indicated.  "At  first  the  protoplasm  is  finely 
granular  but  about  an  hour  after  being  placed  in  water  there  appear  lighter 
hyaline  spots  in  the  protoplasm,  which  at  the  same  time  becomes  a  little 
denser  and  more  granular."  When  stained  with  methylene  blue  it  will  readily 
be  seen  that  the  "hyaline  spots"  are  the  nuclei.  "This  continues  until  there 
is  a  dense  granular  mass  with  clear,  distinct  spots  arranged  at  regular 
intervals.  In  a  short  time  there  appear  in  the  protoplasm  dark  lines  which 
mark  out  portions  about  each  nucleus.  These  lines  become  more  and  more 
distinct  and  finally  there  are  slight  indentations  along  the  margin  of  the 
previously  smooth  protoplasm.  The  content  of  the  conidium  is  now  very 
rough  and  irregular.  By  focusing,  the  individual  swarmspores  can  be  made 
out.  In  a  few  minutes  the  spores  break  apart  and  become  distinct  bodies. 
out  until  the  opening  becomes  maximum  in  size  when  the  entire  mass  of 
At  this  point  there  is  a  pause  during  which  it  seems  that  the  spores  must 
burst  forth  immediately  and,  coincidently,  there  seems  to  be  a  slight  move- 
ment among  them.  Suddenly  through  the  tip  of  the  conidium  there  appears 
a  bit  of  protoplasm  of  one  of  the  swarmspores  which  slowly  forces  its  way 
spores,  jerkily  but  rapidly,  slips  out.-  tt  is  quite  certain  that  the  opening 
is  at  the  papilla,  and  is  probably  brought  about  by  the  dissolution  of  the 
wall  at  this  point  and  not  by  its  breaking,  since  no  remnant  of  the  wall 
can  be  found  after  evacuation."  Istvanffi  (1913)  claims  that  the  papilla  is  a 
cap-like  structure  which  is  pushed  off  when  the  zoospores  emerge.  The 
writer  watched  this  process  very  closely  and  has  fixed  and  stained  conidia 
in  all  stages  of  germination  but  has  never  seen  anything  which  might  pos- 
sibly be  interpreted  in  this  way. 

During  the  preliminary  stages  of  germination  the  conidium  swells 
slightly,  as  Farlow  (1876)  has  already  intimated,  probably  due  to  the  imbibi- 
tion of  water.  Ordinarily  the  increase  in  size  is  about  1/t  in  both  length 
and  breadth.  After  the  evacuation  of  the  zoospores  the  size  decreases  about 
2fi,  becoming  much  smaller  than  the  original  conidium.  Ultimately  the 
conidial  wall  becomes  greatly  wrinkled  and  shriveled. 

"The  swarmspores  remain  for  an  instant  at  the  end  of  the  conidium 
and  then  pull  apart  and  swim  away."  In  this  connection  Farlow  states, 
"They  passed  out  rather  slowly,  usually  one  at  a  time,  and  paused  for  a 
moment  in  front  of  the  opening,  where  they  remained  as  if  not  yet  quite 
free  from  one  another.  In  a  short  time  each  segment  began  to  extricate 
itself  from  the  common  mass,  moved  more  and  more  actively,  and  finally 
darted  off  with  great  rapidity  a  full-fledged  zoospore,  furnished  with  two  cilia." 
The  writer  states  further,  "It  is  quite  probable  that  the  flagella  are  formed 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  141 

at  this  time  by  the  pulling  apart  of  the  spores.  There  is  a  considerable  jerk- 
ing and  wrenching  before  they  separate.  At  times  two  spores  remain 
attached  for  a  long  time  and  finally,  by  dint  of  much  pulling,  they  snap  apart 
and  swim  away.  At  other  times  as  many  as  four  or  five  spores  are  appar- 
ently joined  together  by  their  flagella.  Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  flagella 
are  slender  threads  of  protoplasm  puled  from  the  spores  as  they  split  apart." 
Clinton  (1906)  has  made  a  similar  suggestion  in  the  case  of  Phytophthora 
phaseoli,  videlicet,  "The  motion  is  due  to  a  slender  thread  or  a  cilium  drawn 
out  by  the  pulling  apart  of  the  narrow  zone  connecting  two  adjacent 
bodies  .  .  ."  Istvanffi  (1913.13)  claims  that  the  flagella  are  present  on 
the  spores  before  they  emerge  from  the  conidium  and  infers  that  there  is 
no  hesitation  after  emergence.  He  does  not,  however,  figure  them  in  this 
way.  We  have  never  seen  the  flagella  on  the  newly  formed  zoospores  in  the 
conidium  before  evacuation  though  they  were  very  clearly  stained  on  those 
which  were  free  and  upon  mature  zoospores  which  were  unable  to  escape 
from  the  conidium  (vide  post).  Hence  it  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  the 
flageUa  are  produced  during  the  period  of  emergence  or  while  the  zoospores 
are  hesitating  at  the  apex.  The  method  of  staining  with  methylene  blue 
and  carbol-fuchsin,  has  also  revealed  the  fact  that  the  spores  are  not  con- 
nected by  their  flagella  but  by  other  minute  strands  of  protoplasm  (PI.  Ill, 
fig.  7). 

"Sometimes  all  of  the  swarmspores  do  not  escape  from  the  conidium  at 
once,  but  one  or  two  remain  swimming  about  within.  These  spores  experi- 
ence considerable  difficulty,  so  to  speak,  in  escaping,  seeming  to  be  unable 
to  squeeze  their  nuclei  through  the  opening.  If  they  do  manage  to  escape 
they  are  usually  constricted  at  the  center  into  a  dumbbell  shape. 

"The  number  of  zoospores  produced  varies  greatly.  The  large  conidia 
may  produce  as  many  as  fifteen  to  seventeen  while  some  small  ones  have 
only  one  or  two.  The  normal  number  is  five  to  eight." 

"The  conidia  containing  the  oil  drop  germinate  readily  at  times.  In  this 
case  the  oil  drop  is  left  behind  in  the  conidium,  the  entire  mass  of  proto- 
plasm going  to  make  up  the  swarmspores." 

"The  shape  of  the  swarmspores  is  plano-convex  with  a  keel  or  ridge 
along  the  flat  side.  In  the  center  near  the  flat  surface  there  is  a  light 
hyaline  spot,  the  nucleus.  Near  it,  and  less  brilliant,  is  another  spot  which 
by  tinting  with  stains  appears  to  be  a  vacuole.  From  two  points  on  each  side 
of  the  nucleus  arise  the  flagella,  which  are  of  unequal  length  (PI.  Ill,  fig.  6)." 
Certain  of  the  European  investigators,  Viala  (1903)  and  more  recently,  Ravaz 
and  Verge  (1913),  have  stated  that  the  flagella  are  terminated  with  a  small 
lobe.  According  to  the  writer's  observations  this  lobe  is  never  present  but 
at  times  the  end  of  the  flagellum  may  form  a  small  loop  which  gives  such  an 
impression.  In  this  connection,  Istvanffi  says  ".  .  .  Treated  according  to 
the  methods  of  Zettnow,  one  may  see  that  the  ends  of  the  cilia  are  not  lobed 
as  they  are  most  often  represented,  their  length  is  about  15  to  20/t." 

"This  is  the  normal  shape  of  the  spores  but  there  are  many  exceptional 
shapes  produced  at  times.  It  is  quite  apparent  that  when  the  spores  are 
newly  formed  and  escaping  from  the  conidium,  they  are  very  plastic  and 
capable  of  taking  any  form,  but  once  they  are  fixed  in  any  given  shape  it 
is  difficult  for  them  to  change.  Thus,  if  in  pulling  apart  the  spore  becomes 
pyriform  or  some  irregular  shape  it  remains  so. 


142  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

"It  has  been  stated  by  some  authors  that  the  swarmspores  are  constantly 
changing  their  shape  when  swimming  about.  It  appears  to  the  writer,  how- 
ever, that  there  is  no  actual  change,  the  apparent  change  being  due  to  the 
rolling  motion  of  the  spores  as  they  swim.  This,  combined  with  their 
peculiar  shape,  produces  the  illusion." 

"The  size  of  the  swarmspores  varies,  being  6  to  7  by  7.5  to  9/*.  The 
flagella  are  from  27  to  33/i  in  length." 

"After  swimming  about  for  approximately  one-half  hour  the  swarmspores 
gradually  come  to  rest,  round  up  and  surround  themselves  with  a  thin 
membrane."  It  has  been  previously  pointed  out  that  they  may  continue 
active  for  a  much  longer  time  if  the  temperature  is  low.  "They  apparently 
do  not  immediately  'drop'  their  flagella  but,  rather,  absorb  them,  because, 
after  becoming  globose,  they  continue  to  whirl  and  move  back  and  forth 
until  they  gradually  come  to  rest.  They  would  probably  stop  abruptly  if 
the  flagella  were  immediately  dropped.  Staining  which  has  clearly  revealed 
the  flagella  on  the  motile  forms,  has  failed  to  reveal  them  lying  free  among 
the  quiescent  forms  in  the  same  preparation." 

"The  spores  remain  globose  for  fifteen  minutes,  more  or  less,  and  then 
there  appears  a  slight  protuberence  from  one  side.  This  is  the  germ-tube. 
It  elongates  and  the  contents  of  the  spore  follow.  This  continues  until  the 
contents  have  passed  out  into  the  tube,  leaving  the  thin  wall.  After  the 
tube  reaches  a  certain  length  there  may  be  produced  an  appressorium  from 
which  another  tube  arises  later."  In  certain  cases  it  has  been  observed  that 
the  swarmspores  do  not  germinate  but  become  very  much  more  granular 
and  finally  seem  to  disintegrate  entirely.  At  times  this  occurs  almost  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  germination. 

"The  germ-tube  grows  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf  until  a  stomate 
is  encountered  when  it  turns  sharply  downward,  passing  through  the  open- 
ing into  the  leaf  but  never  penetrates  the  epidermis  directly.  In  order  to 
pass  through  the  stomatal  opening  the  germ-tube  becomes  very  greatly 
attenuated,  being  .4  to  .8//,  in  diameter  but  swells  immediately  after  passing 
into  the  sub-stomatal  cavity  forming  a  structure  which,  at  times,  closely 
resembles  the  germinating  spore  (PI.  I,  figs.  1  to  11). 

Pole-Evans  (1907)  has  termed  a  similar  structure  in  the  case  of  the 
rusts,  a  sub-stomatal  vesicle.  Istvanffi  interprets  it  in  this  case,  however,  as 
a  secondary  spore.  Its  assumed  function  may  best  be  stated  in  his  own 
words.  "The  physiological  role  of  the  secondary  spore  is  in  our  estimation 
to  assure  the  ulterior  development  of  the  germinating  zoospores,  for  this 
reason  all  the  protoplasm  of  the  zoospore  passes  into  the  secondary  spore 
which  is  well  protected  against  all  unfavorable  exterior  factors  in  the  moist 
sub-stomatal  cavity."  This  explanation  of  the  peculiar  behavior  of  the  germ- 
tube  seems  very  reasonable.  The  term  "secondary  spore"  is,  in  the  writer's 
opinion,  also  very  apt  because  in  many  instances,  in  fact  in  practically  all 
instances,  it  closely  resembles  the  spore  from  which  it  arose.  It  germinates 
by  means  of  one  or  more  slender  hyphae  (PI.  I,  figs.  2,  4,  and  11),  and 
according  to  the  writer's  observations  does  not  produce  haustoria  hence 
does  not  serve  to  absorb  food  except  that  which  may  possibly  be  present  in 
the  intercellular  spaces. 

There  are  many  variations  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  secondary  spores. 
In  some  cases,  especially  in  the  leaves  of  susceptible  varieties,  the  entire 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  143 

cavity  is  filled  by  the  irregular  mass  (PI.  I,  fig.  5).  In  other  cases  the 
diameter  is  hardly  more  than  that  of  the  primary  spore  (PI.  I,  fig.  1).  In 
this  case  the  shape  is  usually  pyriform.  The  size  varies  from  6  to  22  by 
17  to  27/z. 

As  has  been  indicated  above  there  arise  from  the  secondary  spore  one 
or  more  strands  of  mycelium  which  radiate  in  different  directions  into  the 
tissue  of  the  leaf.  These  do  not  average  more  than  2  to  3/i  in  diameter.  The 
exact  time  elapsing  before  the  haustoria  are  produced  has  not  been  deter- 
mined but  in  all  material  examined  by  the  writer  they  are  not  formed  on  the 
secondary  spore  as  is  figured  by  Istvanffi,  nor  are  they  developed  from  the 
mycelium  immediately. 

The  incubation  period  varies  with  the  weather,  the  variety,  the  season 
of  the  year  and  the  portion  of  the  plant  affected.  Istvanffi  states  that  during 
the  spring  the  incubation  period  is  longest  and  that  it  gradually  grows 
shorter  until  the  early  part  of  August  after  which  it  again  lengthens.  The 
periods  as  he  determined  them  are  May,  15  to  18  days,  June,  11  to  14  days, 
July,  6  to  7  days,  August,  5  to  6  days  and  late  August  to  September,  9  to  11 
days.  On  the  fruit  the  period  averages  from  2  to  5  days  longer. 

The  varieties  Delaware,  Niagara,  Catawba  and  Clinton  were  inoculated 
during  the  summer  of  1913.  It  was  found  that  on  the  first  three,  which  are 
relatively  more  susceptible  than  the  last,  that  the  period  of  incubation  was 
from  7  to  12  days,  while  on  the  Clinton  under  the  same  conditions,  the 
period  was  20  days. 

The  difference  exhibited  in  the  incubation  period  on  the  Delaware  and 
Clinton  begins  to  be  evident  in  the  earliest  stages  of  infection.  Penetration 
of  the  germ-tube  through  the  stomatal  opening  occurs  in  3  to  5  hours  in  the 
leaves  of  the  Delaware,  while  on  the  variety  Clinton  penetration  apparently 
does  not  take  place  until  after  about  20  hours.  In  about  36  hours  there  is  a 
considerable  formation  of  mycelium  in  the  former  variety  while  in  the  latter 
the  secondary  spore  has  barely  germinated  (PI.  I,  figs.  I  and  II).  If  this 
retarding  of  growth  continues  it  easily  explains  the  great  difference  in  the 
incubation  periods. 

Following  the  method  previously  described  by  the  writer  (1913),  numer- 
ous infection  experiments  were  performed  during  the  summer  of  1913.  Spore- 
laden  drops  of  water  were  placed  at  all  points  on  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces of  the  leaves.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  conditions  under 
which  the  inoculations  were  made,  were  as  nearly  identical  as  it  was  possible 
to  secure,  in  some  cases  the  inoculations  were  on  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces of  different  leaves  in  the  same  inoculation  chamber,  it  was  never 
possible  to  produce  an  infection  through  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  The 
Eur-  pean  investigators  report  a  certain  percentage  of  successful  infections 
on  this  surface.  Istvanffi  has  shown  that  this  is  true  because  stomates 
occur  along  the  mid-rib  and  the  principal  veins  and  about  the  tips  of  the 
leaves,  while  on  the  lower  surface  they  are  very  thickly  and  uniformly 
scattered  over  the  surface.  According  to  our  observations  on  several  differ- 
ent varieties  there  are  no  stomates  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  of 
American  varieties.  This  would  explain  why  it  was  not  possible  to  infect 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves. 

Istvanffi  has  shown  that  there  are  a  few  stomates  on  the  ovary  of  the 
flower  of  vinifera  varieties  and  that  they  do  not  increase  in  number.  When 


144  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

the  grape  attains  the  size  of  a  pea  there  are  no  stomates  on  its  surface  but 
in  their  place  occur  a  number  of  lenticle-like  structures.  Thus  we  find  again 
the  reason  that  it  is  not  possible  to  infect  the  berries  except  when  they  are 
very  small.  It  can  be  shown  without  difficulty  that  the  older  berries  become 
infected  by  mycelium  which  grows  down  through  the  pedicles  and  peduncles 
into  the  fruit.  This  view  is  further  justified  by  the  fact  that  there  are  a  few 
stomates  on  the  pedicle  and  peduncle  thus  allowing  the  possibility  of  infec- 
tion at  these  points. 

According  to  Miiller-Thurgau  (1911)  slight  tears  or  injuries  may  allow 
infection  through  the  upper  surface.  He  bases  this  statement  on  certain  ex- 
periments in  which  this  surface  was  punctured  with  a  needle  at  the  points 
of  inoculation.  To  verify  this  statement  similar  experiments  were  conducted. 
Spore-laden  drops  of  water  were  placed  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  at 
numerous  points.  In  some  cases  the  leaf  was  punctured  with  a  needle 
through  the  drop  and  in  other  cases  injured  before  the  drop  was  placed 
upon  the  leaf.  Checks  of  drops  on  the  uninjured  upper  surface  and  on  the 
lower  surface  were  also  run.  No  infections  were  obtained  except  through  the 
lower  surface.  It  was  then  thought  that  possibly  the  openings  were  not  large 
enough.  With  this  in  view  another  series  of  experiments  was  conducted  in 
which  the  leaf  was  torn  as  much  as  possible  without  allowing  the  water  to 
penetrate  to  the  lower  surface.  In  some  cases  jagged  tears  fully  5  mm.  long 
were  made.  As  before  the  results  were  all  negative.  Hence  in  our  opinion 
injuries  to  the  upper  surface  do  not  permit  infection  unless  the  water  is 
permitted  to  gain  access  to  the  lower  surface  through  the  opening  so  that 
the  swarmspores  may  swim  through  the  opening. 

To  determine  whether  the  swarmspores  produced  from  conidia  which 
had  fallen  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  might  be  able  to  produce  infec- 
tion if  conditions  were  such  that  they  could  gain  access  to  the  lower  surface 
the  following  experiments  were  performed.  The  leaves  were  held  with  the 
lower  surface  firmly  but  not  tightly  against  plates  of  perfectly  clean  glass. 
Drops  of  water  were  than  so  placed  that  there  was  a  continuous  layer  pass- 
ing from  the  upper  surface  over  the  margin  and  between  the  leaf  and  the 
glass.  Fresh  conidia  were  then  placed  in  the  water  on  the  upper  surface 
as  far  as  possible  from  the  margin.  In  three  cases  out  of  five  (60  per  cent) 
infections  occured.  In  the  other  cases  the  explanation  of  the  failure  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  film  of  water  was  broken  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf 
probably  before  conidial  germination.  This  indicates  that  this  method  of 
infection  is  possible  but  that  it  may  occur  only  in  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions because  of  the  ease  with  which  the  film  is  broken.  This  is  an  exact 
verification  of  the  work  of  Ravaz  and  Verge  (1911)  relative  to  this  same 
question. 

Pathological   Histology. 

The  chlorophyll,  the  plastids  and  at  times  the  nucleus  of  the  cell  are 
eventually  disintegrated.  This  process  is  gradual,  being  not  only  confined 
to  certain  cells  or  groups  of  cells,  but  even  to  the  individual  plastids  within 
a  cell,  certain  of  them  remaining  green  while  others  are  entirely  yellow. 
The  first  microscopical  evidence  of  this  change  occurs  in  about  three  days 
after  inoculation. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


145 


The  cells  of  the  spongy  parenchyme  are  first  to  exhibit  the  indications 
of  the  disease,  followed  shortly  by  the  palisade  cells.  The  vascular  tissue 
is  never  affected  but  the  mesophyll  cells  immediately  adjacent  are  first  to  be 
injured.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  during  dry  weather.  The  epidermal 
cells  may  finally  die,  due  rather  to  the  death  of  the  contiguous  cells  than  to 
the  direct  effects  of  the  mycelium. 

Coincident  with  the  loss  of  color  the  cell  contents  become  plasmolysed, 
the  wall  collapses  and  finally 'the  entire  cell  becomes  brown.  This  effect 
seems  to  occur  first  in  the  palisade  cells  bordering  the  veins  rather  than  in 
the  spongy  parenchyme,  as  one  would  expect,  thus  producing  the  peculiar 
network  of  brown  lines  so  prominent  on  the  upper  surface  within  the  yellow 
area.  Gradually  all  the  cells  throughout  the  older  portion  of  the  spot  are 
killed,  causing  the  dead  brown  center.  The  collapsing  of  the  diseased  cells 
reduces  the  thickness  of  the  leaf  within  the  lesion  to  approximately  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  that  of  the  normal. 

The  cortex,  collenchyma,  epidermis,  medullary  rays  and  pith  of  the  stems 
are  affected.  Istvanffi  (1913)  states  that  the  phloem  and  rarely  the  xylem 
may  also  be  involved.  The  writer  has  never  seen  any  evidence  of  the  disease 
in  these  tissues.  Farlow  (1876)  also  states  that  all  parts  of  the  stem  are 
affected  except  the  wood.  In  the  writer's  opinion  this  difference  can  only 
be  interpreted  as  further  proof  of  the  greater  susceptibility  of  the  European 
varieties. 


Plate  5.     Sections  of  healthy  and  diseased  shoots. 


146  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

The  increase  in  the  size  of  the  stem  is  apparently  not  due  to  hyperplasia. 
but  rather  to  a  slight  hypertrophy  of  the  cells,  and  to  the  intussusception  of 
a  large  amount  of  mycelium  between  the  cells.  (PI.  V,  figs.  1  and  2).  The 
water-soaked  appearance  of  the  diseased  stems  is  in  all  probability  the  result 
of  an  excessive  amount  of  sap  in  the  intercellular  spaces.  This  phenomenon 
may  be  caused  by  a  change  in  permeability  of  the  plasma  membrane,  possibly 
induced  by  the  presence  of  the  fungus. 

As  in  the  leaf  the  cells  are  ultimately  killed  and  collapse,  so  producing 
the  brown  sunken  areas  in  the  stem. 

In  the  livid  berry  the  chlorophyll  is  acted  upon  as  in  the  leaf  and  the 
green  color  lost,  thus  giving  the  peculiar  blanched  appearance  so  character- 
istic of  this  stage.  In  a  short  time  the  cells  begin  to  collapse,  the  contents 
become  more  or  less  plasmolysed  and  the  walls  brown,  resulting  in  the  well- 
known  soft,  brown-rot  stage. 

The  color  of  the  prematurely  ripened  grapes  is  located  in  the  outer  six 
or  seven  layers  of  cells.  It  is  due  to  the  formation  of  some  red  substance  in 
the  cell-sap.  This  may  occur  in  the  cells  immediately  adjacent  to  the 
mycelium  or  several  cells  distant.  It  is  very  similar  in  appearance  to  the 
changes  occurring  in  the  normally  ripening  grape. 

Pathological   Physiology. 

The  question  of  the  resistance  or  immunity  of  certain  varieties  of  grapes, 
of  different  organs  of  the  same  variety,  and  of  the  same  organ  at  different 
ages  and  seasons  has  been  seriously  considered  and  investigated  for  some 
time,  particularly  during  the  past  five  or  six  years. 

Bottini  (1909)  determined  that  when  leaves  of  susceptible  varieties  were 
immersed  in  or  sprayed  with  the  sap  expressed  from  the  leaves  of  a  resistant 
variety,  the  former  were  less  easily  infected  than  when  water  was  used.  It 
is  his  opinion  that  the  concentration  of  the  sap  of  the  resistant  variety  is  the 
controlling  factor  in  this  case. 

Laurent  (1911.)  obtained  the  concentration  of  the  cell  sap  of  different 
parts  of  a  vine  and  from  different  varieties.  The  method  employed  was  to 
determine  the  freezing-point  of  the  expressed  juice,  the  freezing  tempeature, 
according  to  Livingston  (1903)  varying  inversely  with  the  concentration  or 
the  osmotic  pressure.  In  this  manner  it  was  determined  that  the  cell  sap 
of  the  older  leaves  is  much  more  concentrated  than  that  of  the  younger 
leaves  and  that  the  sap  of  the  berries  is  much  less  concentrated  than  either. 
In  every  case  the  least  resistant  parts  of  varieties  contained  less  concen- 
trated sap.  With  this  as  a  basis  he  formulates  the  theory  that  resistance  is 
the  result  of  a  more  highly  concentrated  cell  sap.  He  points  out  further  that 
Miintz  has  stated  that  resistance  becomes  greater  as  the  water  content  falls 
below  60  per  cent. 

Cercelet  (1912),  Capus  (1913),  Larue  (1912)  and  many  other  European 
investigators  are  of  the  same  opinion  concerning  the  explanation  of  resist- 
ance. Cercelet  states  that  nitrogen,  inducing  a  succulent  growth  raises  the 
water  content  and  thus  tends  to  render  a  vine  more  susceptible.  On  the  other 
hand,  potash  and  phosphate  are  said  to  increase  the  concentration  of  the  cell- 
sap.  Capus  has  made  many  interesting  observations  in  this  connection.  He 
claims  that  vines  grown  on  a  gravelly  soil  are  in  general  more  resistant  than 
those  on  a  clay  soil.  In  his  opinion  there  are  three  stages  of  resistance  in  the 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  147 

leaves,  being  susceptible  when  young,  gaining  immunity  with  maturity,  and 
again  becoming  susceptible  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  The  writer  has 
also  made  a  similar  observation.  This  change  is  most  strikingly  exhibited 
in  the  more  susceptible  varieties.  It  does  not  occur,  however,  in  young  vines 
in  a  nursery  nor  is  it  so  apparent  in  cold  rainy  seasons.  He  also  claims  that, 
unless  the  vine  is  in  a  receptive  state,  infection  will  not  occur  regardless  of 
how  favorable  the  other  conditions  may  be.  It  is  not  clear,  however,  exactly 
what  is  meant  by  the  condition  of  receptivity. 

Istvanffi  and  Palinkas  (1913)  are  of  the  opinion  that  susceptibility  de- 
pends on  the  vapor  tension  in  the  sub-stomatal  cavity  and  the  other  inter- 
cellular spaces,  upon  the  turgor  of  the  cells  and  to  a  certain  extent  upon  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  cell  sap,  since  chlorotic  leaves  are  relatively 
resistant. 

On  the  other  hand,  Averna-Sacca  (1910)  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  compo- 
sition of  the  cell  sap  may  be  the  important  factor.  To  be  more  specific,  he 
claims  that  the  acidity  plays  an  important  part  in  rendering  a  vine  resistant. 
In  support  of  this  contention  he  points  out  that  the  acidity  of  resistant  forms 
varied  from  4.3  to  10.3  per  cent,  whereas  the  acidity  of  the  more  susceptible 
varieties  is  only  .5  to  2.6  per  cent. 

Resistance  to  the  mildew  does  not  seem  to  be  due  to  any  morphological 
characters  of  the  leaf.  The  densely  matted  hairs  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
leaf  of  certain  varieties  cannot  be  a  factor,  since  it  has  been  determined  that 
small  drops  of  water  readily  permeate  them  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf. 
Furthermore  many  of  our  most  resistant  forms  are  smooth  leaved  while 
certain  of  those  which  are  most  susceptible  are  densely  clothed  with  hairs. 
The  writer  has  determined  that  there  are  several  thousand  more  stomates 
per  square  centimeter  on  the  leaves  of  certain  susceptible  varieties  than  on 
those  of  resistant  forms  but  in  any  case  there  are  amply  sufficient  to  permit 
ready  infection. 

Infection  experiments  may  offer  some  explanation  of  resistance.  In  the 
case  of  the  Delawares  the  germ  tube  very  readily  penetrates  the  stomate 
and  makes  a  rapid  and  prolific  growth  within  the  leaf,  whereas  after  the  tube 
has  penetrated  the  stomate  of  the  leaf  on  a  Clinton  it  seems  to  encounter 
some  influence  which  checks  its  growth,  the  substomatal  swelling  is  smaller, 
the  secondary  mycelium  is  more  attenuated  and  the  growth  during  a  given 
period  is  much  less. 

A  consideration  of  the  difference  in  the  abundance  of  fruiting  on  the 
leaves  of  susceptible  and  resistant  varieties  is  also  significant.  It  is  evident 
that  in  order  to  produce  an  abundance  of  spores  the  fungus  must  absorb 
sufficient  food  material  and  an  insufficient  or  unavailable  supply  will  reduce 
the  number  of  spores.  Granting  this  we  may  say  that  the  food  in  the  resist- 
ant forms  is  not  available  or  that  some  influence  is  present  which  resists  the 
assimilation  of  the  available  food,  because  the  fructification  on  the  resistant 
varieties  is  strikingly  less  than  on  the  more  susceptible  forms. 

The  apparent  immunity  of  the  berries  is  due  to  the  waxy  covering  which 
hinders  the  adhesion  of  water  to  their  surface  and  to  the  lack  of  stomates. 
That  this  resistance  is  only  apparent  immediately  becomes  evident  if  the 
fungus  obtains  entrance  in  some  other  way.  The  growth  of  the  mycelium  is 
very  rapid  and  the  berry  is  quickly  rotted. 


148  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

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Plate  Legends. 

Plate      I.  Infection  of  the  grape  leaf  by  Plasmopara  viticola. 

Plate    II.  Haustoria  and  mycelium  of  Plasmopara  viticola. 

Plate  III.  Fructifications  of  Plasmopara  viticola. 

Plate  IV.  A  few  stages  in  the  development  of  the  oospore. 

Plate    V.  Sections  of  healthy  and  diseased  shoots. 

Plate    I. 

Infection   of  the   grape    leaf  by   Plasmopara   viticola. 

Figs.  1,  2,  4  and  5  are  on  the  leaves  of  the  variety  Delaware;    the  others 

are  on  the  variety  Clinton,    x  750. 

Fig.  1.  Seven  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 

Fig.  2.  Twenty  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 

Ficr.  3.  Seven  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°   F. 

Fig.  4.  Thirty-six  hours  after  inoculation  at  70°  F. 

Fig.  5.  Thirty-six  hours  after  inoculation  at  70°  F. 

Fig.  6.  Thirty-six  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 

Fig.  7.  Twenty  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 

Fig.  8.  Twenty  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 

Fig.  9.  Thirty-four  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 
Fig.  10.     Thirty  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 
Fig.  11.     Thirty-six  hours  after  inoculation  at  50°  F. 


150  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Plate   II. 
Haustoria    and    mycelium    of    Plasmopara    viticola. 

Fig.  1.  A  haustorium  which  is  still  enclosed  in  the  sheath  of  host  cell- 
wall,  x  650. 

Figs.  2-5.  Showing  the  goblet-shaped  sheath  about  the  base  of  the 
haustoria.  In  figures  2,  4  and  5  the  plasma  membrane  is  pressed 
inward  but  not  penetrated,  x  750. 

Fig.  6.  The  formation  of  the  mycelial  cushion  beneath  the  stomate, 
previous  to  conidiophore  formation,  x  750. 

Fig.  7.  The  mycelium  bursting  through  the  epidermis  of  the  petiole  to  form 
conidiophores.  x  750. 

Plate   III. 
Fructifications    of    Plasmopara    viticola. 

Figs.  1  and  3  show  the  effects  of  cuprammonia  on  the  basal  portion  of  the 
conidiophore.  x  300. 

Fig.  2.     The  basal  portion  of  a  normal  conidiophore.     x  300. 

Fig.  4.  Showing  the  comparatively  slight  effect  of  cuprammonia  on  the 
distal  end  of  the  conidiophore.  x  300. 

Fig.  5.  A  conidium  attached  to  the  sterigma  showing  the  lenticular  dis- 
junctive region,  x  750. 

Figs.  6  and  7.  The  zoospores.  In  figure  7  two  of  the  zoospores  are  attached 
by  a  slender  strand  of  protoplasm.  Figure  6  x  750.  Figure  7  x  375. 

Figs.  8-10.     The  germination  of  the  conidia  by  zoospores. 

Fig.  11.     Conidia  produced  by  the  germination  of  the  zoospore. 

Plate    IV. 

A  few  stages  in  the  development  of  the  oospore. 
Fig.  1.     A    multinucleate    oogonium.      The    nuclei    are    apparently    zonate. 

Probably   following  a   division   since   there   are    disintegrating  nuclei 

occurring  abundantly,     x   750. 
Fig.  2.     An  oogonium  and  antheridium.     x  300. 
Fig.  3.     An   oospore   containing   a   single  nucleus   lying   near   a   dark   body 

which  may  be  interpreted  as  the  coenocentrum.     Lying  outside  of  the 

thick  wall  are  remains  of  extraneous  nuclei,     x  750. 
Fig.  4.     A    single    nucleated   oospore    which    contains   a    coenocentrum    and 

what  appear  to  be  remnants  of  other  nuclei  lying  near.     About  the 

margin  are  other  dark  bodies,  probably  the  remains  of  nuclei  which 

migrated  from  the  centrosphere.     x  750. 
Fig.  5.     An    immature    oospore    about    which    the    endosporium    is    being 

formed.     There  is  an  abundant  periplasm  present,     x  750. 
Fig.  6.     A  practically  mature  oospore,     x  750. 

Plate   V. 

Sections   of   healthy   and    diseased    shoots. 

Fig.  1.    A  cross-section  of  a  healthy  petiole  of  a  leaf,     x  300. 

Fig.  2.     A  cross-section  of  the  diseased  petiole  of  approximately  the  same 

age  as  that  shown  in  figure  1.     This  section  also  was  taken  from  the 

same  position  on  the  petiole.     The  intussusception  of  the  mycelium 

very  largely  explains  the  hypertrophy  of  the  diseased  petiole,    x  300. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  151 


.METHODS   OF   PREPARATION   AND   RELATIVE   VALUE    OF 
BORDEAUX    MIXTURES. 

By  O.  BUTLER,  Ph.  D., 
Botanist,  New  Hampshire  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


I. 

Anyone  who  has  perused  the  literature  relating  to  the  copper  fungicides 
cannot  but  have  felt  some  surprise  at  the  multiplicity  of  formulae  given  for 
the  preparation  of  either  Bordeaux  mixture  of  Dauphiny  mixture,  for  instance 
and  at  the  lack  of  sufficient  ground  for  this  multiplicity.  We  are,  of  course, 
informed  by  the  author  of  every  variant  that  his  formula  fulfills  certain 
requirements  that  justify  its  publication,  though  no  attempt  is  usually  made 
to  prove  the  validity  of  the  contention.  The  characters  that  a  copper  fungi- 
cide must  possess  are,  however,  easily  defined;  and  no  formula  should  be 
published  unless  it  can  be  shown  to  possess  in  a  degree  not  hithertofore 
obtained,  the  essential  qualities  demanded.  I  have  said  that  the  characters 
that  a  copper  fungicide  must  possess  are  readily  defined.  They  are: 

1.  The  wash  must  not  be  toxic  to  the  plant  it  is  destined  to  protect. 

2.  The  active  principle  must  be  efficient,  that  is,  the  unit  copper  must 
have  a  high  fungicidal  value. 

3.  The  active  principle  must  be  effective,  that  is,  the  unit  copper  must 
have  a  high  protective  value. 

4.  The  active  principle  must  be  adhesive. 

5.  The   active   principle    must   dissolve    sufficiently    rapidly   under    the 
action  of  the  weather  to  be  efficient. 

While  the  literature  does  not  yet  afford  complete  information  regarding 
the  manner  in  which  the  various  copper  fungicides  meet  the  five  essentials 
above  mentioned,  our  knowledge  has  grown  sufficiently  during  the  last  few 
years  to  warrant  a  brief  study  of  one  important  fungicide  currently  used  in 
viticulture,  to  wit,  Bordeaux  mixture. 

II. 

The  Bordeaux  mixtures  used  in  practice  are  reducible,  as  I  have  pointed 
out  elsewhere,!  to  three  types  depending  on  the  ratio  cupric  sulphate  to 
calcic  oxide  used  in  their  preparation,  which  three  types  may  be  character- 
ized as  follows: 

1.  Neutral  Bordeaux  mixtures. 

2.  Slightly  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures. 

3.  Strongly  alkaline  or  basic  Bordeaux  mixtures. 

The  neutral  Bordeaux  mixtures  are  washes  in  which  the  ratio  cupric 
sulphate  to  calcic  oxide  is  1:0.2  (Woburn  Bordeaux  mixture)  or  approxi- 
mately 1:0.2  ("acid"  Borbeaux  mixture).  In  the  former  case  the  copper  is 


i  Butler.  O.  Bordeaux  Mixture:  I  Physico-chemical  studies,  Phytopath- 
ology 4:125-180,  1914. 


152  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

precipitated  as  the  basic  sulphate  10  CuO  SO3;2  in  the  latter  10  CuO  SO3 
predominates  though  depending  on  the  strength  of  the  mixture  in  cupric 
sulphate  and  the  care  with  which  it  was  prepared  either  the  next  lower  or 
higher  basic  sulphate  may  be  present  to  some  extent. 

The  slightly  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures  are  prepared  by  combining  the 
cupric  sulphate  and  calcic  oxide  approximately  in  the  ratio  of  3:1  and  are 
represented  by  the  so-called  "neutral"  Bordeaux  mixture  of  practice,  which 
consists  largely  of  10  CuO  SO3. 

The  alkaline  or  basic  Bordeaux  mixtures  are  those  washes  in  which  the 
lime  occurs  in  considerable  excess,  the  ratio  cupric  sulphate  to  calcic  oxide 
ranging  between  the  limits  2:1  and  0.5:1.  The  copper  precipitate  in  these 
mixtures,  at  least  when  they  contain  more  than  0.5  per  cent  cupric  sulphate, 
consists  largely  if  not  entirely  of  10  CuO  SO3. 

We  have  seen  that  in  all  three  types  of  Bordeaux  mixture  recognized  in 
practice  the  copper  is  precipitated  very  largely  in  the  form  of  the  basic 
sulphate  10  CuO  SO3.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  this  is  only  true 
in  general  for  mixtures  that  have  been  recently  made,  Bordeaux  mixtures  be- 
ing, with  one  exception,  i.  e.,  Woburn  Bordeaux  mixture,  quite  unstable, 
while  for  all  practical  purposes  Woburn  Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  consid- 
ered stable,  all  other  forms  of  Bordeaux  mixture  deteriorate  more  or  less 
rapidly  depending  on  their  strength  in  cupric  sulphate,  the  ratio  cupric 
sulphate  to  calcic  oxide  used  in  preparing  them,  and  the  temperature  at 
which  the  washes  are  kept,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 

Table  I.     Effect  of  temperature,  strength  in  cupric  sulphate,  and  ratio  cupric 
sulphate  to  calcic  oxide  on  the  rate  of  deterioration  of  Bordeaux  mixtures. 

Temperature         Strength  of  Mixture  Ratio  Time  Required 

of                  in  Cupric   Suiphate     Cupric    Sulphate  for 

Mixture  Per  Cent                  Calcic  Oxide            Deterioration 

25°  C.  4  1:1  16 

9°  C.  4  1:1  96 

9°  C.  4  1:0.5  121 

25°  C.  2  1:1  21 

9°  C.  2  1:1  192 

9°  C.  2  1:0.5  240 

25°  C.  1  1:1  8 

9°  C.  1  1:1  168 

9°  C.  1  1:0.5  192 

25°  C.  0.5  1:1  5 

9°  C.  0.5  1:1  72 

9°  C.  0.5  1:0.5  336 

9°  C.  0.5  1:0.2 

On  standing,  for  instance,  the  so-called  "acid"  and  "neutral"  Bordeaux 
mixtures  gradually  decompose"  with  the  formation  of  cupric  oxide,  while  the 
copper  precipitate  in  the  basic  Bordeaux  mixtures,  which  is  highly  gelatinous 
in  the  freshly  prepared  washes,  gradually  changes  over  into  a  copper  salt, 
as  yet  unidentified,  which  forms  blue  sphaero-crystals.  The  three  types  of 

2  For  the  chemistry  of  Bordeaux  mixture  see: 

Pickering,  S.  U.,  The  Chemistry  of  Bordeaux  Mixture,  Journ.  Chem.  Soc. 
(Transactions)  91:pt.  2,  1907. 

Bordeaux  Spraying:  Journ.  Agr.  Science  3.171  et  seq.  1908-10. 

Bedford,  Duke  of,  and  Pickering,  S.  U.  Woburn  Experimental  Fruit 
Farm  Report  11,  25  et  seq.  1910. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  153 

Bordeaux  mixture  met  with  in  practice  differ,  therefore,  more  or  less  mark- 
edly from  one  another,  both  as  regards  physical  constitution  and  chemical 
composition  shortly  after  they  have  been  made,  as  is  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing table  in  which  the  general  characteristics  of  these  washes,  both  at  the 
time  of  preparation  and  after  no  further  change  takes  place,  are  briefly 
shown: 

Table    II.     Chief  characteristics   of  the    Bordeaux   mixture   types   when    pre- 
pared and  after  standing  until  a  state  of  equilibrium  has  been   reached. 

Per  cent  Ratio 

Type  of  Mixture  Cupric          Cupric  Sulphate  Color  of  Mixture 

Used  Sulphate  Calcic  Oxide  When  Fresh 

"Acid"  Bordeaux  Mixture    1%     1:0.2    approximately        Cendre  bluei 
"Neutral"     "  1%     1:0.25  approximately        Cendre  blue 

Alkaline       "  1%     1:0.5  Light  cerulean  blue 

Strongly  alk.  Bordx.  Mix.     1%     1:1  Light  methyl  blue 

Color  of  Mixture 

— Form  of  Precipitate Composition  of  Precipitate 

When  Old         Fresh  Mixture  Old  Mixture       Fresh  Mixture  Old  Mixture 

Deep  medici  blue Gelatinous Flocculent 10  CuO  SO3 CuO  largely 

Light  medici  blue Gelatinous Flocculent 10  CuO  SO3 CuO  largely 

Bradley's   blue Gelatinous Crystalline 10  CuO  SO3 ? 

Light  amparo  blue....Gelatinous Crystalline 10  CuO  SO3 ? 

Having  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  general  charateristics  of  the  Bor- 
deaux mixtures  met  with  in  practice,  we  may  now  proceed  to  study  their 
relative  value  as  fungicides  taking  up  for  consideration  first  the  action  of 
these  washes  on  the  plant  to  be  protected,  i.  e.,  the  grape  vine. 

in. 

The  effect  of  the  Bordeaux  mixtures  on  the  grape  vine  may  be  neutral, 
beneficial,  or  more  rarely  deleterious.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  consider  the 
cause  of  the  beneficial  action  that  follows  the  use  of  a  Bordeaux  mixture 
as  it  would  lead  us  too  far  afield  to  do  so.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  this  bene- 
ficial action,  the  most  obvious  feature  of  which  is  the  darker  green  color  of 
the  sprayed  foliage,  appears  to  be  more  marked  when  alkaline  Bordeaux 
mixtures  are  used  then  when  "acid"  or  "neutral"  Bordeaux  mixtures  are 
employed.  The  toxic  action  of  Bordeaux  mixtures,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
only  produced  when  alkaline  washes  are  employed  and  is  confined,  so  far 
as  I  am  aware,  to  young  and  growing  leaves.  All  varieties  of  the  grape  are 
not  equally  sensitive,  however,  to  the  action  of  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  furthermore,  if  we  are  to  believe  Ewart*  injury  is  either  produced  within 
24-48  hours,  or  is  not  produced  at  all. 


i  Ridway,  R.     Color  standards  and  nomenclature.     Washington,  D.   C., 
1912.     The  colors  are  to  be  viewed  on  a  white  ground. 

3  The  statements  I  shall  make  during  the  course  of  the  present  chapter 
are  not  to  be  considered  as  applying  either  in  whole  or  in  part  to  the  effects 
produced  by  Bordeaux  mixtures  on  other  plants.     Whether  they  will  be  the 
same,  or  whether  they  will  be  different,  experiment  alone  can  tell. 

4  Ewert  K.  Die  fungicide  und  nhysiologische  Wirkung  der  Kupferhaltigen 
Bruhen  mit  besonderer  Beriichsichtigung  der  Bordeauxbruhe,  Mitteilungen 
des  Deutschen  Weinbau-Vereins  2,  1907. 


154  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

While  the  toxic  effect  of  alkaline  washes  is  not  very  serious,  as  would 
be  inferred  from  the  general  silence  of  the  literature,  it  is  sufficiently  marked 
when  it  occurs,  as  on  the  Clinton  for  example,  to  arrest  the  attention  of  a 
keen  observer.  The  intervenium  portions  of  the  leaf  are  the  most  sensitive 
and  the  affected  tissues  in  older  leaves  not  infrequently  fall  away,  which 
gives  the  injured  foliage  a  somewhat  ragged  appearance,  while  the  recently 
expanded  leaves  are  not  only  scorched  but  more  or  less  distorted  and  curled. 

The  fact  that  alkaline  washes  are  injurious  while  "acid"  and  "neutral" 
washes  are  innocuous  indicates  that  the  notion,  especially  current  in  the 
horticultural  literature  of  the  United  States,  that  increasing  the  lime  content 
of  a  given  Bordeaux  mixture  reduces  its  injuriousness  is  not,  however 
justifiable  it  may  be  in  some  instances,  a  practice  to  be  universally  recom- 
mended; in  the  case  of  the  grape  vine,  injury  as  I  have  indicated,  may 
result.  The  injurious  action  of  the  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures,  however,  is 
hardly  sufficiently  marked  to  warrant  disregarding  these  washes  should  they 
be  found  to  possess  valuable  compensating  qualities. 


IV. 

The  literature  is  unanimous  in  saying  that  "acid"  Bordeaux  mixtures  are 
more  efficient  than  "neutral"  or  alkaline  washes.  It  should,  however,  be 
noted  that  the  literature  grounds  the  distinction  on  the  more  rapid  solubiliza- 
tion  of  the  copper  in  "acid"  Bordeaux  mixture  and  not  on  the  ground  of 
greater  toxicity  of  the  unit  copper.  We  must,  therefore,  in  deciding  whether 
an  "acid"  Bordeaux  mixture  is  more  efficient  than  a  neutral  or  alkaline  wash 
take  under  consideration  the  time  when  they  severally  become  active  and 
not  the  total  time  throughout  which  they  remain  active. 

Let  us  first  consider  the  relative  rapidity  with  which  the  copper  becomes 
toxic  in  "acid,"  "neutral"  and  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures.  In  order  for  any 
copper  wash  to  have  a  fungicidal  value  the  copper  must  be  in  the  form  of 
a  soluble  salt,  or,  if  insoluble  when  applied,  become  slightly  soluble  on 
weathering.  In  the  case  of  Bordeaux  mixtures,  the  copper  is  always  insolu- 
ble when  applied, 5  but  gradually  yields  on  weathering  small  amounts  of 
soluble  copper.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  copper  becomes  soluble  will 
depend  on  the  degree  of  alkalinity  of  the  mixture.  The  excess  of  calcic 
hydrate  present  must  be  carbonated  before  any  copper  can  go  into  solution, 
but  it  seems  doubtful  that  the  interval  between  the  time  of  appearance  of 
soluble  copper  in  mixtures  of  various  degrees  of  alkalinity  is  quite  so  great 
as  Millardet  and  Gayon6  found  in  one  of  their  experiments.  These  authors 
obtained  the  results  shown  in  the  following  table: 


•r>It  should  be  noted  that  "acid"  Borbeaux  mixtures  may  contain  soluble 
copper. 

6  Millardet,   A.  and  Gayon,  U.     Les   divers   precedes   de  traitement   du 
mildiou  par  les  composes  cuivreux.    Journ.  Agr.  Pratique  1,  1887. 

7  Millardet,  A.  and  Gayon  U.,  loc.  cit.,  ante. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  155 

Table    III.    Effect   of   increasing   the   alkalinity   of    Bordeaux    mixture   on    the 
time  of  appearance  of  soluble,  copper. 

Cupric    Sulphate  Ratio  Soluble  Copper 

Taken  Cupric    Sulphate  Present 

%  Calcic  Oxide  After 

1.6  100:21.0  5    days 

1.5  100:22.4  7    days 

1.5  100:44.8  12    days 

1.5  100:89.6  13    days 

1.5  100.179.2  18    days 

Though  the  rapidity  with  which  the  copper  in  alkaline  Bordeaux  mix- 
tures becomes  soluble  will  of  necessity  always  be  less  than  in  "acid" 
mixtures,  as  no  soluble  copper  can  exist  in  the  presence  of  calcic  hydrate, 
it  seems  however,  quite  unlikely  that  the  retardation  in  its  appearance  is 
as  material  as  is  sometimes  thought.  To  be  sure  Millardet  and  Gayon" 
observed  that  Bordeaux  mixture  spots  might  remain  alkaline  for  five  or  six 
six  weeks  in  summer  and  the  data  presented  in  the  above  table  unmistak- 
ably show  that  increasing  the  lime  content  of  a  Bordeaux  mixture  beyond 
the  amount  required  to  produce  a  neutral  mixture  delays  the  appearance  of 
soluble  copper.  Nevertheless  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures  lose  their  alka- 
linity usually  quite  promptly,  though  the  amount  of  spray  applied  per  square 
meter  as  well  as  the  degree  of  atmospheric  moisture  prevailing  at  the  time, 
particularly  the  latter,  are  factors  of  paramount  importance,  as  a  glance  at 
the  following  table  will  show: 

Table   IV.     Time   required   for   1    per  cent   Bordeaux   mixture   1:1   to   become 
neutral  in  dry  air  and  in  air  saturated  with  water  vapor. 

Amount  of  Spray  Used  Time  Required  to  Reach  Neutrality 

per  1000  cm2  In  Moist  Air  In  Dry  Air 

0.108  grm 5-  7  hours  (8) 

0.263  grm 11-13  hours 

From  the -data  presented  in  the  above  table  we  gather  that  the  rate  at 
which  Bordeaux  mixture  1:1  becomes  neutral  is  proportional  to  the  amount 
applied  per  square  meter  even  under  very  favorable  conditions  for  carbona- 
tion,  whereas  in  absolutely  dry  air  little  or  no  change  occurs  on  long  stand- 
ing irrespective  of  the  quantity  used.  It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  the  effective- 
ness of  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures  will  much  depend  on  the  weather  condi- 
tions prevailing  during  the  interim  between  the  time  of  their  application  and 
the  period  at  which  protection  must  be  afforded. 

While  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  "acid"  Bordeaux  mixtures  are  more 
efficient  than  alkaline  washes  when  immediate  action  is  required,  as  in  the 
case  of  black-rot  (Guignardia  bidwellii)  when  the  spraying  has  not  infre- 
quently to  be  carried  out  during  or  just  prior  to  spore  distribution  and 
germination,  this  advantage  should  not  in  itself  be  considered  of  capital 
importance  in  preventive  spraying,  for  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures  are  as 
efficient  as  "acid"  washes  as  soon  as  they  have  become  carbonated.  The 
copper  in  an  "acid"  Bordeaux  mixture  and  in  a  carbonated  alkaline  mixture 
of  the  same  age  dissolve  at  approximately  the  same  rate  as  the  data  pre- 
sented in  the  following  table  shows: 

8  The  experiment  was  discontinued  at  the  end  of  14-64  hours. 


156 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


Table  V.     Relative  toxicity  of  neutral  and  alkaline  Bordeaux  mixtures  to  the 
spores  of  Phytophthora  infestans  and  Plasmopara  Viticola.9 

The  data  presented  are  for  indirect  germination,  the  experiments  being 
carried  out  according  to  the  method  described  by  Reddick  and  Wallace.^ 
The  sporangia  were  placed  on  the  sprayed  slides  in  drops  of  distilled  water 
and  were  kept  at  or  near  the  optimum  temperature  for  germination  which 
usually  occurred  in  the  witnesses  in  about  two  hours. 


Number  of 
Experiments 

3 
6 


Mixture  — Germination    Tests   with    Spores    of   Plasmopora    viticola — - 

Mixture 

Number  of         Non-Toxic 
Experiments        at  %  Cu. 


Non  -Toxic 

Mixture 

at  %  Cu. 

Number  of 

Toxic 

Experiments 

at  %  Cu. 

3.95  mgrm. 

9 

3.95  mgrm. 

9 

1.97  mgrm. 

1.97  mgrm. 

1.97  mgrm. 
1.97  mgrm. 


1.97  mgrm. 
3.95  mgrm. 

3.95  mgrm. 


1.97  mgrm. 
1.97  mgrm. 


Ratio 


Amount  of  Copper  Germination  Tests  With  Spores 


Cupric    Sulphate 

(Cu2)   Applied 

of  Phytophthora 

infestans2 

Calcic  Oxide 

per  1000  cm* 

Number  of 

Mixture  Toxic 

Used 

(indicative    only) 

Expts. 

at  %   Cu. 

1:02 

0.15    mgrm. 

4 

3.95  mgrm. 

0.15    mgrm. 

7 

3.95  mgrm. 

1:03 

0.075  mgrm. 

0.30    mgrm. 

3 

7.9   mgrm. 

1:1 

0.075  mgrm. 

0.30    mgrm. 

3 

7.9   mgrm. 

1:1.75 

0.075  mgrm. 

0.15    mgrm. 

3 

3.95  mgrm. 

1:2 

0.15    mgrm. 

*The  germination  tests  quoted  in  this  table  were  kindly  made  for  me  by  Dr.  I.  E.  Melhus. 

From  the  data  presented  in  the  above  table  we  may  conclude  that  the 
efficiency  of  the  unit  copper  is  the  same  in  all  three  types  of  Bordeaux 
mixtures. 


V. 

The  adhesiveness  of  the  copper  fungicides  has  been  studied  by  various 
authors  whose  results  for  the  different  types  of  Bordeaux  mixtures  currently 
met  with  I  have  gathered  together  in  the  following  table. 


9  Reddick,  D.  and  Wallace  E.     On  a  laboratory  method  of  determining 
the  fungicidal  value  of  a  spray  mixture  or  solution.     Science  n.  s.  31.  1910. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


157 


Table  VI.     Relative  adhesiveness  of  2  per  cent  Bordeaux  mixtures  prepared 
with  various  ratios  cupric  sulphate  to  calcic  oxide. 


Strength  in 

Copper 

Sulphate 

Per  Cent 

2 


Ratio 
Cupric  Sulphate      Adhesiveness 


Calcic  Oxide 

1:0.2  approx. 

1:0.3  approx. 

1:0.5 

1:0.2  approx. 

1:0.5 

1:0.3  approx. 

1.1 

1:1.5 


Relative 
Numbers 

64.7 

93.5 
100 

64.7 

67.8 
100 

90.4 

56.7 


Autore 


Gastine 


Guillon  &   Gouirand 
«  <t 

Kelhofer 


The  data  presented  clearly  show  that  the  ratio,  cupric  sulphate  to  calcic 
oxide,  used  in  the  preparation  of  Bordeaux  mixture  has  a  marked  effect  on 
the  adhesiveness  of  the  wash.  A  moderate  excess  of  lime  produces  a  more 
adhesive  mixture  than  either  a  great  excess  or  minima  quantities.  To  what 
are  these  changes  due?  Let  us  first  consider  the  case  of  neutral  and  ap- 
proximately neutral  mixtures. 

The  decrease  of  adhesiveness  of  Bordeaux  mixture  as  neutrality  is  ap- 
proached is  not  due  to  the  fact  that  the  precipitate  formed  is  less  gela- 
tinous than  that  found  in  alkaline  washes.  In  fact  the  rate  of  settlement  of 
Bordeaux  mixtures  increases  as  the  ratio  cupric  sulphate-calcic  oxide 
approaches  1:1  even  when  the  strength  of  the  mixture  in  copper  sulphate  is 
sufficiently  high  to  give  rise  to  the  formation  of  10  CuO  SO3  in  all  cases  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  table. 


Table  VII.    Settlement,  in  relative  numbers,  of  1  per  cent  Bordeaux  mixture 
prepared  with  different  ratios  cupric  sulphate  to  calcic  oxide. 


1%  1:1     —Settlement  after: 

1%  1:0.5  —Settlement  after: 

1%  1:0.25— Settlement  after: 

1%  1:0.2  —Settlement  after: 


%  hour,  100;  1  hour,  205;  2  hours,  455. 

%  hour,  72;  1  hour,  150;  2  hours,  355. 

%  hour,  55;  1  hour,  122;  2  hours,  294. 

i/2  hour,  5;  1  hour,     10;  2  hours,     20. 


Hence  the  physical  state  of  the  precipitate  is  not  directly  the  cause  of 
the  lesser  adhesiveness  of  "acid"  and  "neutral"  Bordeaux  mixtures.  The 
lesser  adhesiveness  of  these  washes  which  is,  as  we  have  seen,  quite  marked, 
is,  however,  readily  explainable.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  composing 
precipitate  in  these  mixtures  is  wholly  gelatinous  or  almost  wholly  gela- 
tinous, in  other  words  the  precipitate  is  quite  homogeneous  and  in  drying 
will  behave  like  a  body,  and  a  stress  or  strain  developed  at  any  point  will 
be  accompanied  by  a  reaction  in  other  parts.  When,  therefore,  "acid"  or 
"neutral"  Bordeaux  mixtures  are  sprayed  on  glass,  the  precipitate  dries 
more  rapidly  on  the  surface  exposed  to  the  air  and  in  drying  shrinks,  which 
results  either  in  fissuring  or  a  curling  of  the  edges,  depending  on  the  thick- 
ness of  the  film  and  the  degree  of  hygroscopicity  of  the  atmosphere.  When 
the  washes  are  sprayed  on  foliage,  the  tendency  to  fissure  and  curl  is  greatly 
augmented  owing  to  the  transpiration  of  the  leaves  retarding  the  drying  out 
of  the  lower  surface  of  the  films.  I  have  seen  spots  of  Woburn  Bordeaux 
mixture,  for  instance,  curl  up  to  such  an  extent  that  the  slightest  mechanical 


158  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

agency  would  knock  them  off.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  moderately  alka- 
line Bordeaux  mixtures,  i.  e.,  washes  in  which  the  ratio  cupric  sulphate  to 
calcic  oxide  varies  between  1:0.5  and  1:1,  the  precipitate  is  no  longer  homo- 
geneous but  contains  in  admixture  a  considerable  number  of  calcic  hydrate 
particles  which  effectively  prevent  the  fissuring  and  curling  of  the  spots  on 
drying;  the  calcic  hydrate  particles  play  a  similar  role  to  sand  in  cement. 

Again,  in  the  Bordeaux  mixtures  in  which  the  ratio*»upric  sulphate  to 
calcic  oxide  is  greater  than  1:1  the  spots  on  drying  do  not  fissure  or  curl, 
but  their  adhesiveness  decreases  for  the  same  reason,  I  presume,  that  an 
excess  of  sand  weakens  cement. 

The  adhesiveness  of  Bordeaux  mixtures  is  affected,  however,  not  only 
by  the  ratio  cupric  sulphate  to  calcic  oxide  used  in  their  prepartion,  but 
by  the  length  of  time  elapsed  between  the  time  of  prepartion  and  the  time 
of  application,  the  temperature  of  the  water  used,  the  relative  dilution  of 
the  copper  sulphate  solution  and  the  milk  of  lime,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  two  are  combined. 

Let  us  first  of  all  inquire  what  effect  the  method  of  preparation  has 
on  the  adhesive  properties  of  Bordeaux  mixtures.  It  has  been  shown  by 
Gastineio  that  the  method  of  mixing  Bordeaux  mixtures  affects  their  adhes- 
iveness as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table. 

Table    VIM.      Effect    on    method    of    mixing    on    adhesiveness    of    Bordeaux 

mixture. 

Adhesiveness  of  freshly 

prepared  mixtures; 

Method    of    Mixing.  Relative  numbers 

Copper  and  lime  equally  diluted  and  poured  together 

simultaneously   100 

Strong  lime  to  weak  copper 92.5 

Strong  to  strong 54.6 

The  method  of  mixing  Bordeaux  mixture  not  only  affects  its  adhesiveness 
as  the  above  table  shows,  but  we  also  have  abundant  evidence  to  show  that 
the  method  of  mixing  employed  also  affects  the  rate  of  settlement  of  the 
precipitate  formed.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  one  is  justified  in  assum- 
ing that  a  close  relation  exists  between  rate  of  settlement  and  adhesiveness, 
though  the  data  at  present  available  are  not  sufficiently  extensive  to  warrant 
one  drawing  definite  conclusions  regarding  the  superiority  of  any  one  method 
of  prepartion  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  If  one  prepares,  for  instance,  a 
series  of  1  per  cent  Bordeaux  mixtures  (1:1)  as  per  the  following  methods: 

1.  Strong  lime  to  strong  copper 

2.  Strong  lime  to  weak  copper 

3.  Weak  lime  to  strong  copper 

4.  Lime  to  copper  equal  strengths 

5.  Lime  and  copper  equal  strengths  poured  together  simultaneously 

6.  Copper  to  lime,  equal  strengths 

7.  Weak  copper  to  strong  lime 

8.  Strong  copper  to  weak  lime 

9.  Strong  copper  to  strong  lime.il 

he  will  obtain  the  results  indicated  in  the  following  table,  a  perusal  of 
which  will  show  that  there  are  at  least  four  methods  of  mixing  1  per  cent 

lOLoc.  cit. 

11  The  mixtures  were  prepared  as  follows: 

In  method  1  the  requisite  amount  of  a  stock  solution  of  cupric  sulphate 
was  taken  and  water  added  to  30cc.;  the  calcic  oxide  was  freshly  slacked 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  159 

Bordeaux  mixture  1:1  that  produce  more  slowly  settling  washes  than  the 
so-called  standard  or  American  method,  i.  e.,  diluting  equally  the  copper 
sulphate  and  the  milk  of  lime  and  pouring  them  together  simultaneously. 
Do  these  four  methods  of  mixing  produce  more  adhesive  or  less  adhesive 
mixture  than  the  standard  method?  As  regards  one  of  them,  the  addition  of 
strong  lime  to  weak  copper,  the  figures  obtained  by  Gastine  indicate  that 
it  is  slightly  less  adhesive,  but  in  the  matter  of  the  other  methods  we  are 
at  present  without  data. 

Table  IX.     Relative  rate  of  settlement  at  the  end  of  two  hours  of  1  per  cent 
Bordeaux  mixture    (1:1)    prepared   in  various  ways. 

Method 123456789 

Settlement   % 45.07     14.72     17.07     11.34     15.35     13.69      10.5       29.1      52.75 

Besides  the  method  of  mixing  employed,  the  temperature  of  the  water 
used  in  preparing  Bordeaux  mixture  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  rate  of 
settlement  of  the  preciptate.  Taking  1  per  cent  Borbeaux  mixture  (1:1) 
as  an  example  we  find  that  the  cooler  the  water  the  slower  the  rate  of 
settlement,  the  results  obtained  for  a  temperature  range  between  15°  C. 
and  30°  C.  being  extremely  striking  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table   X.      Effect   of  temperature   of   water   on    rate   of  settlement   of   1    per 
cent  Bordeaux  mixture  (1:1). 

Temperature  15°  C.,  settlement  after:  %  hour,  3.5;  1  hour,    8.5;  2  hours,  18 
Temperature  24°  C.,  settlement  after:  %  hour,  6.8;  1  hour,  14.5;  2  hours,  28.2 
Temperature  30°  C.,  settlement  after:  %  hour,  9.5;  1  hour,  21.25;  2  hours,  38.2 

VI. 

I  said  in  the  beginning  that  a  copper  fungicide  must  possess  to  a  high 
degree  the  following  five  characteristics: 

1.  The  wash  must  not  be  toxic  to  the  plant  it  is  destined  to  protect. 

2.  The  active  principle  must  be  efficient,  that  is,  the  unit  copper  must 
have  a  high  fungicidal  value. 

3.  The  active  principle  must  be  effective,  that  is,  the  unit  copper  must, 
have  a  high  protective  value. 

4.  The  active  principle  must  be  adhesive. 

5.  The   active   principle    must   dissolve    sufficiently    rapidly   under   the 
action  of  the  weather  to  be  efficient. 


and  the  milk  of  lime  diluted  to  30  cc.;  the  milk  of  lime  was  then  poured 
into  the  cupric  sulphate  solution,  and  water  added  to  100  cc.  In  method  2 
the  stock  solution  of  cupric  sulphate  was  diluted  to  85  cc.,  the  freshly  slacked 
lime  to  15  cc.;  the  milk  of  lime  was  then  poured  into  the  cupric  sulphate  solu- 
tion. In  method  3  the  cupric  sulphate  solution  was  made  up  to  15  cc.,  and 
the  milk  of  lime  to  85  cc.  The  milk  of  lime  was  then  poured  into  the  solution 
of  copper  sulphate.  In  method  4  the  stock  solution  of  cupric  sulphate  and 
the  milk  of  lime  were  both  diluted  to  50  cc. ;  the  milk  of  lime  was  then 
poured  into  the  cupric  sulphate.  In  method  5  the  reagents  were  diluted  as 
in  method  4  and  were  simultaneously  poured  into  a  third  vessel.  Method  6 
is  the  converse  of  method  4.  Method  7  is  the  converse  of  method  3.  Method 
8  is  the  converse  of  method  2.  Method  9  is  the  converse  of  method  1. 


160  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

Using  the  above  criteria  in  the  study  of  the  three  types  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  met  with  in  practice,  to  wit,  "acid"  Bordeaux  mixture,  "neutral" 
Bordeaux  mixture,  and  alkaline  or  basic  Bordeaux  mixture,  I  have  attempted 
to  show  in  how  far  these  several  washes  meet  the  requirements  and  conclude 
as  a  result  of  this  conspectus  as  follows: 

I.  "Acid"  and  "neutral"   Bordeaux  mixtures  are  less   injurious  to  the 
grape  than  alkaline  washes. 

II.  The  toxic  value  of  the  unit  copper  in  "acid,"  "neutral"  and  alkaline 
Bordeaux  mixtures  is  the  same. 

III.  The  unit  copper  in  "acid"  and  "neutral"  Bordeaux  mixtures  is  more 
effective  when  immediate  action  is  required  than  the  unit  copper  in  alkaline 
washes. 

IV.  Alkaline    Bordeaux   mixtures    are   more    adhesive    than    "acid"    or 
"neutral"  washes. 


v     SULPHUR  FUNGICIDES.*" 
By  GEO.  P.  GRAY, 

Chemist,  Insecticide  and  Fungicide  Control  Laboratory,  University  of 
California,  Berkeley. 


The  honor  of  a  place  on  your  program  was  accepted  with  some  reluc- 
tance as  it  was  felt  that  the  subject  of  sulphur  fungicides  could  be  far  better 
discussed  by  one  of  more  practical  training  and  experience.  Of  recent  years, 
however,  the  chemist  is  finding  an  increasing  number  of  opportunities  for 
usefulness  in  nearly  every  branch  of  human  activity.  From  time  to  time 
he  has  been  called  upon  to  contribute  his  share  toward  the  solution  of  some 
of  the  vexing  problems  arising  in  the  control  of  insects  and  fungi.  The 
examination  of  materials  incident  to  the  administration  of  the  insecticide 
and  fungicide  laws  of  the  United  States  and  of  a  dozen  or  more  states  is 
largely  a  chemical  problem.  There  has  thus  been  created,  especially  in  the 
United  States,  an  absolute  necessity  for  a  more  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  the  composition  and  properties  of  insecticides  and  fungicides.  As  a 
natural  consequence,  a  bond  of  common  interest  has  resulted  between  the 
viticulturist,  entomologist,  plant  pathologist,  horticulturist,  and  chemist. 

In  view  of  the  preceding  remarks  there  is  offered  a  chemically  flavored 
discussion  of  the  different  kinds  of  sulphur  and  of  the  composition  and  prop- 
erties of  some  of  the  sulphur  fungicides  which  might  be  of  interest  to  viti- 
culturists. 

It  is  thought  that  such  a  discussion  may  be  an  aid  toward  a  more  com- 
plete understanding  of  these  materials  and  of  their  relative  merits  for  the 
uses  to  which  they  may  be  put  to  meet  various  conditions. 

The  paper  is  not  presented  with  the  intention  of  offering  advice  on  any 
phase  of  viticultural  practice  nor  to  recommend  any  particular  substance  or 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  161 

compound  or  manner  of  treatment  as  a  remedy  for  the  ills  that  may  befall 
a  vineyard.  The  properties  and  relations  of  the  sulphur  fungicides  are  to 
be  impartially  discussed,  leaving  the  choice  of  materials  to  those  who  are 
better  qualified  to  judge. 

Before  taking  up  the  main  part  of  the  paper,  a  brief  survey  of  the 
sources  of  the  world's  supply  of  sulphur  and  particularly  that  of  the  United 
States  and  an  outline  of  refining  methods  may  be  of  interest. 

SOURCE    OF    THE    WORLD'S    SUPPLY    OF    SULPHUR. 

iLargely  abstracted  from  "Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  Ca'en- 
dar  year  1913."  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Chapter  on  "Sulphur,  Pyrite,  and 
Sulphuric  Acid,"  by  W.  C.  Phalen. 

Sicily  is  the  leading  sulphur-producing  country  of  the  world,  the  normal 
production  of  this  country  being  about  400,000  metric  tons  annually.  Sicily's 
production  for  the  year  ending  July  31,  1913  was  351,752  metric  tons  (346,213 
long  tons).  The  production  has  been  gradually  decreasing  during  the  last 
two  years  while  that  of  its  nearest  rival,  the  United  States,  has  been  in- 
creasing. The  cause  of  the  decline  in  the  production  of  the  Sicilian  sulphur 
is  attributed  to  "the  destruction  by  explosion  of  one  of  the  more  important 
mines  which  had  previously  produced  an  average  of  about  30,000  metric 
tons  a  year;  the  failure  to  discover  new  deposits  of  sulphur  during  the  last 
decade;  the  continual  deepening  of  all  the  existing  mines,  with  consequent 
increased  cost  of  mining;  the  working  out  and  inundation  of  a  number  of 
mines;  the  lack  of  labor  and  its  increased  cost  due  to  the  continuous  emigra- 
tion; and  finally,  the  law  of  June  30,  1910  which  restricted  the  granting  of 
sulphur  mining  concessions.  All  these  causes  lead  to  the  belief  that  the 
annual  output  of  Sicilian  sulphur  in  the  future  will  not  exceed  400,000  metric 
tons." 

The  United  States  is  the  second  important  sulphur  producing  country  of 
the  world,  having  produced  311,590  long  tons  in  1913.  Notwithstanding  this 
notable  production,  there  was  imported  in  the  same  year  some  22,000  tons, 
the  Pacific  Coast  receiving  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  imports  in  the  form  of 
crude  sulphur.  Previous  to  1900  the  production  of  sulphur  in  the  United 
States  had  not  exceeded  5,000  tons.  The  rapid  increase  in  the  production  of 
sulphur  in  the  United  States  has  been  due  to  the  development  of  immense 
deposits  of  very  pure  sulphur  in  the  State  of  Louisiana.  The  method  of 
mining  the  sulphur  in  this  deposit  is  so  novel  and  the  effect  upon  the  sulphur 
market  of  the  world  has  been  so  profound  that  a  description  of  the  process 
may  be  of  interest. 

This  great  store  of  sulphur  was  made  available  for  the  use  of  man  by  the 
untiring  efforts  of  Mr.  Herman  Frasch,  who  in  1912  was  the  recipient  of  the 
Perkin  Medal  for  distinguished  services  in  the  fields  of  applied  chemistry. 
The  following  account  of  the  process  was  given  by  Professor  C.  F.  Chandler 
in  his  presentation  address  on  the  occasion  of  bestowing  the  medal  upon 
Mr.  Frasch:i 

"On  the  23rd  of  October,  1890,  Mr.  Frasch  applied  for  a  patent  for  an 
epoch-marking  improvement  in  the  sulphur  industry.  It  had  long  been  known 


iJour.  Ind.  Eng.  Chem.,  Vol.  4,  No.  2,  page  133. 


162  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

that  there  was  a  large  deposit  of  native  sulphur  in  Calcasieu  Parish,  Lou- 
isiana, at  a  depth  of  one  thousand  feet  below  the  surface.  But  all  attempts 
to  get  at  the  deposit  and  bring  the  sulphur  to  the  surface  had  failed  com- 
pletely, on  account  of  the  layers  of  quick  sand  above  the  deposit.  Mr.  Frasch 
evolved  the  idea  of  melting  the  sulphur  in  place,  by  means  of  superheated 
water  forced  down  a  boring,  and  forcing  the  melted  sulphur  to  the  surface, 
through  an  inner  tube.  During  the  period  beginning  October  23,  1890,  to 
February  6,  1905,  Frasch  has  applied  for  ten  patents  for  his  inventions  of 
apparatus  and  processes  for  accomplishing  this  result. 

"His  efforts  have  been  entirely  successful.  The  Union  Sulphur  Company 
was  organized,  he  secured  control  of  the  sulphur  deposit,  set  up  the  batteries 
of  boilers,  bored  the  wells,  built  the  railroad  to  carry  the  sulphur  to  the  sea- 
board, and  the  docks  at  Sabine  Pass  for  the  ships  which  deliver  the  sulphur 
to  the  seaboard. 

"There  are  seven  batteries  of  boilers,  each  of  which  runs  a  well.  A 
single  well  delivers  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  sulphur  per  day.  In 
a  two  months'  test,  six  wells  delivered  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  thousand 
tons  of  sulphur,  proving  the  capacity  of  the  mines  to  exceed  the  entire  con- 
sumption of  the  world. 

"The  sulphur  is  pumped  into  bins  about  fifty  feet  high  constructed  of 
planks,  where  it  congeals  and  forms  a  block  of  from  seventy-five  thousand  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons,  over  ninety-nine  per  cent,  pure  sulphur. 
The  planks  are  subsequently  removed,  the  huge  block  is  broken  up  by  blast- 
ing, and  the  sulphur  is  loaded  directly  into  the  cars  by  a  scooping  derrick 
which  picks  up  two  tons  at  a  time." 

In  1912,  mining  operations  began  on  a  deposit  in  Texas  very  similar  to 
the  Louisiana  deposit  and  also  believed  to  be  very  large.  The  mine  is  ope- 
rated in  very  much  the  same  way  and  it  is  thought  that  Texas  sulphur  will 
be  in  the  future  no  small  part  of  the  world's  output.i 

Wyoming  also  produces  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur.  The  sulphur  here  is 
mined  in  open  cuts,  the  ore  in  places  containing  as  high  as  40  per  cent, 
sulphur.  The  material  as  mined,  however,  contains  from  15  to  25  per  cent. 
"At  the  refining  plant  the  sulphur  bearing  rock  is  drawn  into  perforated 
steel  cars  which  are  run  in  groups  of  three  into  a  retort.  Steam  is  supplied 
from  two  16-foot  boilers,  and  the  liquid  sulphur  is  drawn  into  wooden  tanks, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  solidify.  The  sulphur  is  broken,  crushed  to  pass 
through  a  20-mesh  sieve,  and  sacked  for  shipment." 

Deposits  of  easily  workable  sulphur  also  exist  in  Utah  and  Nevada.i 
Their  location,  however,  is  too  remote  for  their  products  to  be  a  factor  in 
any  of  the  markets  outside  a  radius  of  one  or  two  hundred  miles. 

Japan  is  an  important  producer  and  it  is  from  this  country  that  practi- 
cally the  whole  supply  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  obtained,  amounting  to  about 
20,000  tons  annually.  In  many  respects,  the  method  of  extracting  sulphur 
from  the  ore  as  employed  in  Japan  is  similar  to  the  calcerone  process  which 
has  been  used  for  many  years  in  Sicily.  This  latter  process  is  described  in 


i  "Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1913,"  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
page  7. 

Davis,  A.  W.,  Min.  Sci.,  August,  1913,  pp.  99-102. 

Hamor,  W.  A.,  Jour.  Ind.  Eng.  Chem.,  Vol.  5,  No.  4,  page  337. 

i  Private  communication. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  163 

Nelson's  "Loose-Leaf  Encyclopedia."  This  treats  quite  fully  of  this  and 
other  processes  of  extracting  sulphur  from  its  ore.  In  Sicily  the  ore  is  placed 
in  ovens  and  is  melted  out  from  the  non-sulphur  material  by  the  heat  pro- 
duced by  burning  a  part  of  the  sulphur.  The  melted  sulphur  runs  off  at  the 
bottom  into  the  open  to  cool.  The  Japanese  process  is  very  similar  to  this 
but  the  sulphur  there  is  found  intimately  mixed  with  very  fine  pumice  stone. 
The  ore  itself  very  nearly  resembles  clay.  The  fine  condition  of  the  extran- 
eous matter  does  not  permit  the  ready  separation  by  heat  as  in  Sicily.  The 
sulphur  ore  is  placed  in  cast  iron  retorts  and  melted  out  by  means  of  steam 
heat,  a  process  called  leaching  the  ore.i 

It  may  seem  strange  that  California,  having  deposits  of  easily  workable 
sulphur  just  across  its  borders,  should  receive  its  supply  from  the  far  off 
country  of  Japan.  Freight  rates  by  land  have  set  up  an  economic  barrier 
which  effectively  prevents  all  the  States  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
from  British  Columbia  to  Mexico  from  receiving  sulphur  of  domestic  pro- 
duction. The  cost  of  sulphur  in  Japan  plus  the  freight  charges  to  the  Pacific 
Coast  is  considerably  less  than  the  cost  of  sulphur  at  a  mine  in  Nevada  on 
the  line  of  the  Western  Pacific  Railway  plus  the  cost  of  delivery  by  rail  to 
San  Francisco.  Whether  or  not  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  affording 
a  direct  water  route  from  the  mines  of  Louisiana  and  Texas,  will  change  the 
source  of  supply  for  the  Pacific  Coast  remains  to  be  seen.  It  may  be  that 
still  other  economic  factors  of  deeper  significance  will  prevent  any  important 
change  in  the  sulphur  markets  of  the  West. 

New  Zealand.  In  1912  work  began  on  the  deposits  of  sulphur  on  White 
Island,  New  Zealand.  The  production  thus  far  has  not  been  great  enough 
to  be  of  world  consequence. 

Mexico.  Consul  Wilbert  L.  Bonneyi  reported  in  1912  that  the  great  bulk 
of  Mexican  sulphur  is  produced  at  the  mines  near  Cerritos  in  the  State  of 
San  Luis  Potosi.  The  deposit  is  one  of  the  largest  and  richest  in  the  world. 
The  production  of  the  mines  is  about  800  tons  per  month,  one  third  being 
consumed  in  Mexico  and  the  remainder  shipped  to  Germany. 

REFINING     METHODS. 

The  refining  methods  in  use  are  in  themselves  quite  simple,  although 
the  construction  of  the  apparatus  may  be  considerably  varied  by  different 
refiners.  In  principle,  the  process  is  as  follows:  Su'phur  is  placed  in  a  retort 
and  sufficient  heat  applied  to  vaporize  it.  The  vapors  are  conducted  into  a 
large  chamber  having  a  vent  at  the  top.  As  the  heavier  fumes  of  sulphur, 
mixed  with  a  small  amount  of  sulphur  dioxide,  fill  the  chamber,  the  air  is 
forced  out  through  the  vent  at  the  top.  After  the  removal  of  the  air,  the  vent 
is  closed  and  the  sublimation  continued  until  the  walls  of  the  chamber 
become  too  warm  to  condense  the  vapors.  The  chamber  is  allowed  to  cool 
and  the  sublimed  sulphur  is  shoveled  up  from  the  bottom. 

The  finest  grade  of  sublimed  sulphur  is  that  which  is  deposited  farthest 
from  the  retort.  The  sulphurs  of  intermediate  fineness  are  deposited  in  order 
from  the  most  remote  part  of  the  chamber  well  up  toward  the  retort. 


i  Private  communication. 

i  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  No.  3,  p.  232. 


164  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Directly  beneath  the  inlet  from  the  retort  to  the  chamber  there  is  deposited 
a  considerable  quantity  of  sulphur  more  or  less  run  together  in  a  compact 
mass.  This  lump  sulphur  is  sold  as  refined  lump  or  "virgin  rock."  Around 
the  edges  of  this  mass  and  out  in  all  directions  toward  the  finer  grades  there 
is  a  deposit  which  is  known  as  "honey-comb"  sulphur.  This  may  be  thrown 
back  into  the  retort  and  resublimed  or  it  may  be  ground  and  sold  as  refined 
flour  sulphur.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  sublimed  sulphur  which  is  deposited 
in  the  chamber  ranges  all  the  way  from  the  very  finest  particles  in  the  most 
remote  parts  of  the  chamber  through  the  coarser  and  coarser  grades  to  the 
lump  sulphur  which  is  deposited  directly  beneath  the  inlet  from  the  retort. 

All  of  the  non-volatile  impurities  are  left  in  the  retort  and  any  impure- 
ties  found  in  the  sublimed  sulphur  must  be  of  a  volatile  nature.  Im- 
pureties  found  in  crude  sulphurs  which  can  not  be  removed  by  the  sublima- 
tion process  are  arsenic  and  asphaltum,  both  of  which  would  be  carried  over 
along  with  the  vapor  of  sulphur.  Some  crude  sulphurs  contain  an  appreciable 
amount  of  silicious  material  which  will  remain  behind  in  the  retort. 

Most  of  the  sulphur  which  is  refined  in  the  United  States  is  of  a  very 
pure  character,  being  98  to  99.5  per  cent  pure  and  is  very  free  from  arsenic 
and  asphaltum  so  that  the  sublimation  process  is  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  a  desirable  physical  condition. 

KINDS    OF    SULPHUR. 

Sublimed:  This  term  may  be  properly  applied  to  any  sulphur  which  has 
been  purified  by  the  process  of  sublimation.  Sublimation  may  be  described 
as  bringing  a  solid  into  a  state  of  vapor  by  means  of  heat,  which,  on  cooling, 
returns  to  a  solid  state.  This  definition,  therefore,  includes  the  refined  lump 
(or  "virgin  rock")  and  "honey-comb"  as  well  as  the  flowers  of  sulphur  of  all 
degrees  of  fineness. 

Flowers.  The  word  "flowers"  shouM  be  used  to  designate  the  finest  and 
fluffiest  grades  of  the  sublimed  sulphurs  only.  It  would  be  a  difficult  matter, 
however,  to  say  just  when  a  sulphur  is  entitled  to  the  use  of  the  word.  Asa 
consequence,  the  coarsest  grades  of  sublimed  sulphur  have  been  sold  as 
flowers  of  sulphur. 

All  grades  of  sublimed  sulphur  contain  traces  of  sulphur  dioxide  which 
in  time  may  be  oxidized  into  sulphuric  acid.  The  amount  is  usually  small, 
but  enough  to  give  it  a  sour  taste.  It  was  noted  by  Blodgetti  that  a  decidedly 
acid  taste  was  always  noticed  in  sulphurs  which  gave  trouble  in  the  sulphur- 
ing machines.  Samples  of  troublesome  sulphur  were  analyzed  and  in  one 
case  nearly  two  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid  was  found.  The  lumping  of  the 
sulphur  was  attributed  to  the  presence  of  the  sulphuric  acid  which  attracted 
moisture  from  the  air  and  kept  the  su'phur  in  a  damp  condition  so  that  it  had 
a  tendency  to  pack  when  pressed  together  in  the  hands.  No  sulphurs  of  such 
remarkably  high  sulphuric  acid  content  have  been  seen  by  the  speaker  but 
an  occasional  sample  has  been  examined  which  stuck  more  or  less  to  the 
sides  of  glass  containers  and  upon  analysis  showed  an  appreciable  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid.  Sulphur  sacks  occasionally  rot  and  this  is  attributed  to 
the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  quite  fortunate  that  instances  of  this 
kind  are  very  rare  in  California. 


Blodgett,  P.  M.,  New  York  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bu1.  395,  1915. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  165 

Flour:  Before  the  development  of  the  modern  grinding  and  bolting 
machinery,  the  process  of  sublimation  was  depended  upon  entirely  for  the 
production  of  sulphur  in  a  very  finely  divided  condition.  For  this  reason,  the 
earlier  authorities  recommended.without  exception,  flowers  of  sulphur  for  use 
in  the  control  of  surface  mildews.  The  present  tendency,  however,  seems  to 
be  in  favor  of  the  finely  ground  sulphur  which  can  be  made  finer  than  the 
former  and  appear  to  be  fully  as  efficient,  if  not  more  so.i 

Pulverized  sulphurs  produced  by  means  of  grinding  are  now  almost 
universally  known  as  flour  sulphur;  these  may  or  may  not  be  bolted  to  insure 
uniformity.  It  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  similarity  of  prepara- 
tion of  this  and  wheat  flour  may  have  suggested  the  word.  Very  likely  the 
similarity  in  sound  of  flour  and  flower  may  have  been  used  to  deceive  the 
consumer.  Powder  crude  sulphur  may  be  purchased  as  well  as  refined  sul- 
phur in  all  grades  of  fineness. 

Blown  or  Ventilated:  The  rubber  industry  requires  an  extremely  fine 
sulphur  and  a  grade  of  ground  and  bolted  sulphur  is  supplied  to  them  which 
is  known  as  "blown"  or  "ventilated."  A  very  finely  ground  sulphur  is  beaten 
up  by  machinery  through  which  passes  a  current  of  air  supplied  by  a  power- 
ful electric  fan.  The  very  finest  particles  are  thus  separated  from  the  coarser 
ones.  The  Insecticide  Laboratory  has  examined  samples  of  remarkably  fine 
sulphur  of  Eastern  production  which  appear  to  have  been  treated  in  this  way. 
These  are  being  advertised  quite  extensively  in  the  Eastern  States  for  the 
dusting  of  plants,  and  theoretically  ought  to  be  very  efficient.  They  are  also 
the  most  suitable  for  the  preparation  of  a  wettable  sulphur.  The  cost  of 
these  plus  the  freight  charges  across  the  continent  would  very  probably  pre- 
vent their  extended  use  in  this  State  unless  experiments  show  them  to  be 
much  more  efficient  than  those  of  local  production.  In  communicating  with 
the  local  refiners,  it  is  learned,  however,  that  they  could  furnish  a  similar 
quality  if  the  demand  were  sufficient  to  warrant  the  installation  of  the 
necessary  machinery. 


USE    OF    DRY    SULPHUR. 

The  use  of  sulphur  in  one  form  or  other  antedates  the  earliest  records 
of  man's  efforts  to  control  the  insect  and  fungous  enemies  of  cultivated 
crops.  The  sulphur  of  the  eighteenth  century  must  have  been  a  very  potent 
substance  indeed,  for  in  1787  the  following  recommendation  is  made:  "First 
wet  the  trees  infested  with  lice,  then  rub  flowers  of  sulphur  upon  the  insects 
and  it  will  cause  them  all  to  burst. "i  The  extensive  use  of  sulphur  in  France 
for  the  control  of  surface  mildews  of  grape  vines  dates  from  about  the  year 
1850,  although  its  value  for  this  purpose  had  been  known  long  before  that 
time.  To  this  day  it  remains  without  a  formidable  rival  as  a  remedy  against 
a  great  variety  of  agricultural  pests.  Factors  which  have  contributed  to  its 
universal  use  are:  its  cheapness,  efficiency,  ease  of  purification,  abundant 
supply,  non-poisonous  nature,  harmlessness  to  the  higher  animals,  vegetation 
and  soils,  and  double  utility  both  as  an  insecticide  and  fungicide. 


i  Ibid. 

i  Goeze,  J.  A.  E.,  "Geschichte  einiger  schadlichen  Insecten,"  Leipsig,  1787, 
168.     (Cited  by  Lodeman,  "The  Spraying  of  Plants.") 


166  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

The  continuance  of  the  practice  of  applying  dry  sulphur  to  plants  either 
by  hand  or  by  means  of  various  mechanical  devices  from  the  very  beginning 
of  its  use  up  to  the  present  time  speaks  well  of  the  efficiency  and  economy  of 
this  method.  The  cost  of  material  and  application  in  this  way  are  undoubt- 
edly the  cheapest.  In  vineyards  located  on  very  uneven  land  or  on  steep 
slopes,  this  is  the  only  way  in  which  su'phuring  can  be  done.  There  are 
certain  disadvantages  in  the  use  of  dry  sulphur.  This  method  is  the  most 
wasteful  of  material;  the  application  is  best  made  in  the  early  forenoon 
while  the  dew  is  still  on  the  vines;  rain  and  wind  are  apt  to  remove  most  of 
the  sulphur;  in  cool  weather  sulphur  is  inactive.  From  time  to  time  the  use 
of  liquid  sprays  have  been  advocated  as  a  means  of  avoiding  some  of  the 
above  difficulties.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  make  a  spray  of 
sulphur  and  water  or  of  Bordeaux  mixture  and  sulphur.  Dry  sulphur,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  a  peculiar  aversion  to  water  and  when  the  two  are 
together  the  sulphur  has  a  perverse  way  of  rolling  up  in  little  balls,  a  part 
floating  on  the  surface  and  the  remainder  sinking  to  the  bottom.  As  a 
consequence  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  secure  a  uniform  mixture  of  the  two. 


Wettable  Sulphur.     Sulphur  Pastes. 

Various  ways  have  been  suggested  for  the  preparation  of  sulphur  so  that 
it  will  be  readily  wetted  by  watter.  Vermorel  and  Dantonyi  reported  that  if 
sulphur  be  mixed  with  1  per  cent,  soap  solution,  it  could  be  wetted  by  water. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  such  a  preparation  could  not  be  wetted  with 
certain  salt  solutions  or  acid  copper  fungicides. 

Use  of  Oleic  Acid:  The  difficulty  was  overcome  by  mixing  100  kilograms 
of  sulphur  with  a  solution  of  200  c.  c.  of  oleic  acid  in  2  liters  of  denatured 
alcohol  and  evaporating  the  alcohol. 

Use  of  Glue:  The  speakers'  attention  has  also  been  called  to  the  fact 
that  a  weak  solution  of  glue  has  the  property  of  wetting  sulphur.2  The 
following  suggestions  were  offered  for  the  preparation  of  a  sulphur  spray 
with  the  aid  of  glue: 

"A.  Make  an  open  box  without  bottom,  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  of  such 
size  that  it  will  fit  readily  inside  of  manhole  opening  in  top  of  spray  tank  and 
fasten  on  outside  of  box,  on  opposite  sides  of  same  near  the  top,  two  pieces 
of  wood  sufficiently  long  to  support  box  in  opening  of  spray  tank  and  prevent 
its  slipping  into  same.  Over  the  open  bottom  of  box  tack  a  piece  of  wire 
cloth,  preferably  of  brass,  with  18  or  20  meshes  to  the  linear  inch,  and  over 
this  again  tack  a  piece  of  ^  or  %  mesh  galvanized  wire  cloth  to  support  and 
take  the  strain  away  from  the  light  wire  cloth. 

"B.  Provide  a  cheap  paint  brush,  round  or  flat,  two  or  two  and  a  half 
inches  long. 

"For  every  seven  or  eight  pounds  of  dry  sulphur  to  be  used  prepare 
three  gallons  of  glue  solution  containing  one-half  ounce  of  glue  (preferably 
ground)  to  the  gallon.  Place  the  sulphur  in  a  pail  or  other  convenient  recep- 
ticle  and  pour  on  about  one  gallon  of  the  glue  solution  and  stir  vigorously 


1  Vermorel,  V.,  and  Dantony,  E.,  Compt.  rend.,  153,  194. 

2  Communication  from  Mr.  F.  H.  Pough,  Manager  Research  Department 
of  the  Union  Sulphur  Company,  New  York. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  167 

with  a  paddle  or  knead  with  the  hands,  breaking  up  all  the  lumps  as  thor- 
oughly as  practical.  The  stirring  or  kneading  should  be  continued  for  three 
or  four  minutes,  until  the  sulphur  is  thoroughly  wetted  and  forms  a  smooth 
creamy  paste. 

"Place  the  box  (A)  in  position  in  the  opening  of  the  spray  tank  and  run 
into  it  as  much  as  desirable  of  the  wet  sulphur;  then  work  the  sulphur 
through  the  sieve  with  the  brush,  using  the  remainder  of  the  glue  solution 
to  help  wash  it  through.  Should  more  liquid  be  required  for  this  purpose, 
water  taken  from  the  spray  tank  may  be  used." 

So  far  as  known,  the  only  wettable  sulphurs  to  come  into  use  in  this 
State  are  a  so-called  "iron  sulphide"  and  two  proprietary  preparations. 

Iron  Sulphide:  The  first  was  devised  by  Ballard  and  Volcki  as  a  remedy 
against  the  powdery  mildew  of  the  apple.  The  fungicide  is  prepared  by  mix- 
ing a  solution  of  iron  sulphate  with  an  excess  of  lime-sulphur  solution.  There 
results  a  mixed  precipitate  of  insoluble  iron  sulphide  (black),  free  sulphur 
(yellowish),  and  calcium  sulphate  (white).  The  excess  of  lime-sulphur  is 
washed  out  and  there  is  left  a  paste  of  the  three  precipitates  which  are  quite 
insoluble  and  inert  toward  most  ordinary  reagents.  The  iron  sulphide  is 
black  and  is  present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  mask  the  presence  of  the  other 
precipitates.  The  precipitated  sulphur  is  believed  to  be  the  only  constituent 
of  fungicidal  value,  the  others  being  merely  incidental  to  this  economical 
manner  of  precipitating  free  sulphur  in  a  finely  divided  form.  The  iron 
sulphide  and  calcium  sulphate  also  serve  to  prevent  the  minute  particles  of 
sulphur  from  flocculating  (i.  e.,  uniting  to  form  coarser  grains). 

The  directions  for  the  preparation  of  sufficient  stock  to  make  five  hun- 
dred gallons  of  spray  are  as  follows. 

"Fill  a  50-gallon  barrel  about  two-thirds  full  of  water.  Weigh  out  10 
pounds  of  iron  sulphate  (copperas),  place  in  a  sack,  and  suspend  in  the  water. 
The  iron  sulphate  will  dissolve  fairly  rapidly,  and  when  it  is  all  in  solution 
measure  out  carefully  2~y±  gallons  of  commercial  lime-sulphur  solution  test- 
ing 33°  Baume,  or  2  gallons  and  3  pints  of  a  lime-sulphur  solution  testing 
32°  Baum6.  Slowly  pour  all  but  2  pints  of  the  lime-sulphur  solution  into  the 
iron-sulphate  solution  in  the  barrel,  stirring  the  mixture  vigorously  with  a  hoe 
or  shovel.  The  addition  of  the  lime-sulphur  solution  will  produce  a  bulky, 
black  precipitate,  and  when  all  but  2  pints  of  the  lime-sulphur  solution  has 
been  added  the  mixture  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes,  when 
the  black  precipitate  will  begin  to  settle  and  a  little  of  the  clear  liquid  at 
the  top  can  be  carefully  dipped  out  with  a  clean  glass  or  cup.  This  clear 
liquid  will  probably  show  no  yellow  lime-sulphur  color,  which  means  that  an 
excess  of  lime-sulphur  solution  has  not  yet  been  added.  In  other  words, 
there  is  still  some  iron  sulphate  in  solution,  in  which  case  the  addition  of  a 
drop  of  lime-sulphur  solution  to  the  clear  liquid  in  the  glass  will  produce  a 
black  precipitate.  This  means  that  more  lime-sulphur  solution  should  be 
added  to  the  stock  in  the  barrel,  and  about  half  of  the  remaining  2  pints  should 
now  be  poured  in  and  the  contents  of  the  barrel  stirred  vigorously  and 
allowed  to  stand.  Some  of  the  clear  liquid  should  again  be  dipped  off  and 
tested  as  before,  to  determine  whether  an  excess  of  lime-sulphur  solution  has 
been  added.  If  necessary,  the  addition  of  small  quantities  of  lime-sulphur 
solution  should  be  continued  until  some  of  the  clear  liquid  dipped  from  the 
top,  after  the  contents  of  the  barrel  have  been  well  stirred  and  allowed  to 
settle,  shows  a  pale  yellowish  lime-sulphur  tint.  The  purpose  of  using  a  slight 
excess  of  the  lime-sulphur  solution  is  to  insure  all  the  iron  sulphate  being 
utilized.  The  voluminous  black  precipitate  that  is  formed  consists  of  iron 


i  Ballard,  W.  S.,  and  Volck,  W.  H.,  "Apple  Powdery  Mildew  and  Its  Con- 
trol in  the  Pajaro  Valley/'  U.  S.  D.  A.  Bui.  120  (1914). 


168  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

sulphid,  precipitated  sulphur,  and  calcium  sulphate.  After  a  slight  excess  of 
lime-sulphur  solution  has  been  added,  the  barrel  should  be  filled  with  water 
and  the  contents  stirred  thoroughly,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  several  hours. 
The  black  iron-sulphid  mixture  will  settle  into  the  lower  half  or  third  of  the 
barrel  and  the  clear  liquid  should  be  poured  off  by  carefully  and  gradually 
tipping  the  barrel,  without  allowing  any  of  the  black  precipitate  to  run  out. 
The  barrel  should  again  be  filled  with  water,  the  contents  thoroughly  stirred 
and  allowed  to  stand  several  hours,  and  the  clear  liquid  poured  off  as  before. 
This  operation  of  washing  the  precipitate  should  be  repeated  until  the  water 
poured  off  no  longer  shows  the  yellow  lime-sulphur  tinge.  Probably  three  or 
more  such  washings  will  be  required,  depending  upon  how  careful  the 
operator  has  been  in  using  only  a  slight  excess  of  lime-sulphur  solution. 
When  the  washing  has  been  completed,  the  stock  barrel  should  be  filled  with 
water  to  exactly  fifty  gallons.  .  .  .  care  should  be  taken  to  stir  the  con- 
tents of  the  barrel  thoroughly  each  time  before  any  of  the  mixture  is  taken 
out." 

The  finished  spray  was  made  by  taking  20  gallons  of  the  stock  solution 
and  adding  water  to  make  200  gallons.  The  cost  of  the  spray  is  estimated 
not  to  exceed  fifteen  or  twenty  cents  per  100  gallons. 

This  paste  mixes  readily  with  water,  is  entirely  insoluble  therein,  re- 
mains well  in  suspension,  adheres  to  foliage,  and  has  given  excellent  results 
in  the  control  of  the  powdery  mildew  of  the  apple.  The  chief  disadvantages 
are  that  it  is  somewhat  tedious  to  make  as  a  home  preparation  and  is  not 
well  adapted  to  commercial  sale  on  account  of  a  tendency  to  deteriorate  upon 
standing  for  any  length  of  time. 

As  prepared  according  to  the  originators'  formula,  each  gallon  of  the 
paste  would  contain  in  the  neighborhood  of  one-tenth  of  a  pound  of  pre- 
cipitated sulphur,  and  the  finished  spray,  one  pound  of  precipitated  sulphur 
to  each  100  gallons. 

Proprietary  Preparations:  Another  form  of  wettable  sulphur  which 
might  be  of  interest  to  viticulturists  is  a  proprietary  preparation  consisting 
of  between  45  and  50  per  cent,  of  sulphur  ground  to  an  impalpable  powder  in 
the  presence  of  glue  and  sufficient  water  to  form  a  paste.  It  is  readily  wet 
by  water,  producing  a  uniform  mixture  by  means  of  slight  agitation  so  that 
a  very  even  distribution  may  be  obtained  by  its  use.  The  finely  divided  con- 
dition of  the  sulphur  makes  it  very  active  against  fungi  which  are  suscept- 
ible to  sulphur.  It  adheres  well  to  the  foliage  so  that  its  action  continues 
over  a  long  period  of  time.  According  to  the  reports  of  some  of  the  State 
agricultural  experiment  stations,  very  favorable  results  have  been  shown 
from  its  use. 

Another  proprietary  wettable  sulphur  is  manufactured  by  grinding  to- 
gether in  a  paint  mill  sulphur  and  diatomaceous  earth  (kieselguhr)  with 
sufficient  water  to  form  a  paste.  The  percentage  of  sulphur  in  this  prepara- 
tion varies  from  45  to  50  per  cent.  The  preparation  is  such  that  it  is  easily 
wet  by  water  and  it  remains  well  in  suspension.  There  are  also  very  favor- 
able reports  from  the  use  of  this  material  as  a  fungicide,  particularly  in  the 
control  of  powdery  mildew  of  the  apple. 


SOLUBLE  COMPOUNDS  OF  SULPHUR. 

An  excellent  class  of  soluble  sulphur  fungicides  which  has  been  long  in 
use  is  the  alkali  sulphides.  Their  cost,  however,  has  largely  restricted  their 
use  to  small  operations,  particularly  as  a  fungicide  for  the  home  garden 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  169 

and  in  green-houses.  Recommendations  have  occasionally  been  made  for 
their  use  in  connection  with  large  spraying  operations  in  vineyards  to  meet 
certain  unusual  conditions  where  quick  action  is  needed.  The  action  of  the 
soluble  sulphur  fungicides  is  more  rapid  than  that  of  sulphur  or  sulphur 
pastes.  While  not  advising  their  use  in  general  practice,  BiolettU  recom- 
mends liver  of  sulphur,  alkali  polysulphides,  or  lime-sulphur  salt  sprays  in 
exceptional  cases  where  "through  neglect  of  proper  sulphuring  the  vines  may 
be  badly  attacked  by  mildew,  and  owing  to  the  coolness  of  the  weather  when 
the  trouble  is  first  perceived  sulphur  may  act  too  slowly." 

Another  soluble  sulphur  spray  which  has  gained  great  popularity  among 
horticulturists  is  lime-sulphur  solution.  This  acts  both  as  a  fungicide  and  an 
insecticide.  Very  little  success  has  attended  its  use  for  the  control  of  the 
powdery  mildew  of  the  apple  in  the  principal  apple  growing  section  of  the 
State  for  the  reason  that  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  apply  it  in  suffi- 
cient strength  without  fear  of  foliage  injury.  Most  excellent  results  have 
been  obtained  from  its  use  in  the  control  of  apple  scab,  for  which  purposes 
it  is  rapidly  supplanting  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  has  been  advocated  for  grape 
vines. 

Composition  and  Properties:  The  alkali  sulphides  represent  the  earliest 
sulphur  fungicides  which  have  been  used  in  soluble  form.  Caustic  soda  and 
caustic  potash  as  well  as  the  alkali  carbonates  will  under  proper  conditions 
form  a  chemical  compound  with  sulphur  which  is  readily  soluble  in  water. 
The  reaction  between  sulphur  and  potassium  hydroxide  in  equeous  solution 
has  been  studied  by  Professor  H.  V.  Tartar  of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.!  He  concludes  that  "the  primary  reaction  of  sulphur  with 
potassium  hydroxide  in  heated  aqueous  solutions  takes  place  as  represented 
by  the  following  equation: 

6KOH  +  8S  =  2K2S3  +  K2S2O3  +  3H2O." 

and  that  "when  sulphur  is  used  in  excess,  a  secondary  reaction  occurs  in 
which  it  combines,  if  present  in  sufficient  quantity,  with  the  trisulphide  to 
form  the  pentasulphide.  Potassium  tetrasulphide  is  perhaps  formed  as  an 
intermediate  product.  The  variation  of  temperature  (below  100°)  and  con- 
centration does  not  alter  the  nature  of  the  reaction."  This  reaction  may  be 
taken  as  typical  of  what  occurs  in  the  making  of  a  similar  sodium  sulphide 
or  in  the  making  of  lime  sulphur  solution.  From  the  results  of  analyses 
made  at  the  Insecticide  Laboratory  it  also  appears  that  much  the  same 
products  are  formed  when  potassium  or  sodium  carbonate  is  fused  with  sul- 
phur. In  the  case  where  the  hydroxide  is  used,  the  by-product  is  water,  but 
if  the  carbonate  is  used,  the  by-product  is  carbon  dioxide,  the  final  products, 
however,  being  almost  identical.  Interpreting  the  chemical  formula  given 
above,  it  is  seen  that  the  product  consists  of  potassium  polysulphide  and 
potassium  thiosulphate.  This  reaction  is  very  similar  to  the  one  involved  in 
the  preparation  of  lime  sulphur  solution,  in  the  latter  case  the  principal  in- 
gredients being  calcium  polysulphide  and  calcium  thiosulphate.  According 
to  the  best  evidence  at  hand  it  is  thought  that  in  all  of  the  above  mentioned 


i  Bioletti,  F.  T.,  "Oidium  or  Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Vine."  California 
Agr.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bui.  186,  page  346  (907). 

i  Tartar,  H.  V.,  "On  the  Reaction  of  Sulphur  and  Potassium  Hydroxide  in 
Aqueous  Solution."  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.,  Vol.  XXXV,  No.  11,  page  1741 
(1913). 


170  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

preparations,  the  polysulphides  are  the  most  active  fungicidal  ingredients. 
They  are  likewise  the  most  caustic.  Foliage  injury  sometimes  obtained  by 
the  use  of  these  materials  may  in  all  probability  be  attributed  to  the  poiy- 
sulphides. 

The  ingredients  of  second  importance  as  fungicides  are  the  thiosulphates. 
Thiosulphates  in  general  have  a  definite  fungicidal  value.  They  are  less 
active,  however,  than  the  polysulphides  and  their  causticity  is  almost 
negligible. 

DECOMPOSITION    OF    SULPHIDES    AND    THIOSULPHATES    AFTER 
APPLICATION    TO    FOLIAGE. 

A  knowledge  of  the  decomposition  products  of  the  foregoing  materials 
after  application  may  be  of  value  in  deciding  the  suitability  of  these  materials 
for  the  various  uses  to  which  they  may  be  applied.  Haywoodi  has  investi- 
gated this  point  in  reference  to  the  decomposition  products  of  lime  sulphur. 
His  experiments  indicate  that  calcium  polysulphides  are  oxidized  to  thio- 
sulphates by  the  action  of  the  air  and  that  the  thiosulphates  thus  produced 
and  those  originally  present  in  the  wash  are  further  oxidized  to  sulphites, 
and  that  the  sulphites  are  eventually  still  further  oxidized  to  sulphates.  The 
first  two  oxidations  liberate  sulphur  in  a  very  finely  divided  condition.  The 
experiments  were  made  under  laboratory  conditions  and  may  not  show  the 
precise  reactions  that  occur  under  field  conditions.  From  the  data  secured 
in  these  experiments,  it  was  calculated  that  it  would  take  about  four  or  five 
months  for  a  complete  oxidation  of  the  wash  and  it  was  also  shown  that  the 
rate  of  decomposition  was  very  much  increased  by  wetting  the  material 
every  day  simulating  the  effect  of  dew.  No  reference  is  at  hand  giving 
similar  experimental  data  on  the  alkali  sulphides.  From  a  consideration  of 
their  chemistry  and  the  miscellaneous  facts  known  about  such  compounds 
it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  their  decomposition  would  be  in  a 
manner  analagous  to  that  of  lime  sulphur  given  above;  that  is,  the  poly- 
sulphides and  thiosulphide  would  be  slowly  oxidized  to  sulphites  and  eventu- 
ally to  sulphates  with  the  liberation  of  free  sulphur  during  the  whole  process 
with  the  exception  of  the  last  stage,  the  chief  difference  in  the  final  product 
being  that  lime-sulphur  solution  is  finally  oxidized  into  insoluble  calcium 
sulphite  and  calcium  sulphate  whereas  all  of  the  decomposition  products  of 
alkali  sulphides  are  readily  soluble  in  water.  It  may  be  well  to  point  out 
here  one  advantage  in  the  use  of  lime  sulphur  as  a  spray  of  general  utility. 
The  final  decomposition  product  to  which  is  converted  all  of  the  ingredients 
of  lime  sulphur  is  calcium  sulphate  or  gypsum.  This  material  is  a  natural 
constituent  of  many  soils,  is  applied  in  many  cases  for  the  improvement  of 
soils  and  in  no  case  is  it  a  detriment  and  in  some  cases  it  may  be  a  benefit. 
This  consideration,  however,  may  not  be  of  great  significance  for  the  reason 
that  the  decomposition  products  are  in  such  small  amount  that  their  effect 
upon  the  soil  is  negligible.  There  is  this  thought,  however,  that  the  continual 
application  of  lime  sulphur  every  year  and  over  an  indefinite  period  of  years 
can  not  in  any  possible  way  add  a  trace  of  undesirable  material  to  the  soil. 
The  decomposition  products  of  the  alkali  sulphides,  however,  are  readily 


i  Haywood,   J.    K.,   "The   Lime-sulphur-salt   Wash   and   Its    Substitutes," 
U.  S.  D.  A.  Bureau  of  Chemistry  Bui.  101  (1907). 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  171 

soluble  and  if  accumulated  in  sufficient  quantity  would  be  an  undesirable  soil 
constituent.  The  quantity  is  smdll,  however,  and  would  be  washed  away  by 
drainage  water. 

THE    HOME    PREPARATION    OF    SOME    SULPHUR    FUNGICIDES. 

Pottassium  Polysulphide:  In  discussing  the  control  of  the  red  spider 
which  in  this  State  is  a  serious  menace  to  many  varieties  of  fruit  trees, 
Volcki  gives  the  following  directions  for  the  preparation  of  a  stock  solution 
of  sulphide  of  potash: 

"Granulated,  or  powdered  concentrated  lye,  15  pounds;  sulphur,  18 
pounds;  water  to  make  20  gallons.  Stir  the  sulphur  and  lye  together  in  a 
vessel  which  will  allow  plenty  of  room  for  boiling.  When  well  mixed,  add 
about  one  pint  of  water,  placing  it  in  a  slight  hollow  in  the  mixture,  and  stir 
in  slowly.  The  mixture  will  soon  begin  to  melt  and  boil,  forming  a  red 
fluid;  stir  until  the  boiling  ceases,  and  then  add  water  to  make  20  gallons. 
This  stock  solution  will  keep  for  awhile,  or  indefinitely  when  protected  from 
the  air." 

The  finished  spray  was  made  up  as  follows: 

"Place  10  to  15  pounds  of  sublimed  sulphur,  or  14  to  20  pounds  of  ground 
sulphur  in  the  spray  tank  with  4  gallons  of  flour  paste  and  1  to  2  gallons  of 
the  sulphid  of  potash  stock  solution;  add  water  to  make  100  gallons.  For 
summer  or  spring  spraying  after  the  danger  of  rains  is  over,  the  minimum 
amount  of  sulphur  is  sufficient." 

Excellent  results  were  obtained  by  the  use  of  this  spray  against  the  red 
spider  on  almond  trees  in  full  leaf.  It  was  found  that  "dry  sulphur  is  usually 
successful  as  a  partial  control.  Sulphur  spraying  has  been  found  many  times 
more  efficient  than  other  methods  of  application  and  is  perfectly  successful 
where  dry  sulphuring  has  failed."  The  sulphide  of  potash  stock  solution  of 
Volck  would  contain  potassium  polysulphides  and  pottasium  thiosulphate  as 
the  chief  ingredients  of  fungicidal  value.  The  solids  would  contain  about 
54  per  cent,  of  sulphur  and  each  gallon  would  carry  nine-tenths  of  a  pound  of 
sulphur  in  all  forms. 

Sodium  Polysulphide:  In  1907,  Haywoodi  proposed  a  substitute  for  the 
lime-sulphur-salt  wash  and  gave  the  following  directions  for  its  preparation. 

"Water  gallons  50 

"Powdered  Sulphur pounds  19 

"Caustic  soda pounds  10 

"The  wash  is  mixed  as  follows:  Make  a  paste  of  the  sulphur  with  not 
more  than  5%  gallons  of  boiling  water;  at  once  add  all  the  caustic  soda, 
which  has  previously  been  broken  up  into  pieces  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut  or 
smaller,  and  stir  occasionally  for  one-half  hour.  At  the  end  of  this  time  add 
44%  gallons  of  water,  stir,  and  the  wash  is  ready  for  use. 

""An  analysis  of  the  liquid  portion  of  this  wash  for  sulphur  compound 
shows  the  following  composition: 

Grams  per  100  c.c. 

"Sulphur  as  thiosulphates 0.63 

"Sulphur  as  polysulphids  and  sulphids 2.85 

"Sulphur  as  sulphates  and  sulphites 01 


"Total  sulphur 3.49" 


i  Volck,  W.  H.,  "Sulphur  Sprays  for  Red  Spiders,"  Calif.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta. 
Bui.  154,  page  10  (1903). 

i  Haywood,  J.  K.,  "The  Lime-sulphur-salt  Wash  and  Its  Substitutes."  U. 
S.  D.  A.  Bur.  Chem.  Bui.  101,  page  28  (1907). 


172  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

This  wash  was  doubtless  intended  as  a  dormant  spray,  as  it  could  not  be 
used  upon  foliage  at  this  strength  without  very  serious  injury.  The  analysis 
indicates  about  three-tenths  of  a  pound  of  sulphur  to  each  gallon  of  the  spray. 
Three  gallons  of  Haywood's  solution  would  therefore  be  equivalent  to  one 
gallon  of  Volck's  stock  sulphide  of  potash  solution.  By  using  the  correspond- 
ing dilutions,  the  same  results  might  be  anticipated  from  either  spray,  both 
having  polysulphides  and  thiosulphate  as  the  chief  ingredients. 


COMMERCIAL     PREPARATIONS     OF     THE     ALKALI     POLYSULPHIDES. 

Liver  of  Sulphur:  This  compound  is  not  suitable  for  home  preparation. 
It  is  made  commercially  by  fusing  potassium  carbonate  and  sulphur  together 
in  a  crucible.  By  the  action  of  the  heat,  carbon  dioxide  is  liberated  and  the 
sulphur  combines  with  the  potassium.  After  the  fusion  is  complete,  the  melt 
is  poured  out  on  to  iron  plates  where  it  solidifies  into  a  mottled  yellow  and 
chocolate  colored  cake.  The  sulphur  is  combined  in  the  form  of  polysul- 
phides and  thiosulphates.  Analysis  of  samples  of  liver  of  sulphur  show  total 
sulphur  to  be  between  40  and  50  per  cent. 

Sulphides  and  Polysulphides:  Both  potassium  and  sodium  have  been 
used  as  a  base  for  the  combination  of  sulphur  in  a  form  soluble  in  water. 
Chemical  examination  of  a  number  of  brands  shows  a  remarkable  variation 
in  sulphur '  content,  the  range  being  from  17  to  42  per  cent.  In  air  cases, 
however,  the  materials  consisted  mainly  of  alkali  sulphides  and  thiosulphate. 
Chemically,  sodium  is  capable  of  uniting  with  more  sulphur  than  is  potassium, 
on  account  of  its  smaller  atomic  weight.  Except  in  the  case  of  two  proprie- 
tary preparations,  this  fact  has  not  been  taken  advantage  of,  for  a  sample 
of  liver  of  sulphur  (potassium  polysulphide)  contained  more  sulphur  than 
any  of  the  sodium  compounds.  An  excess  of  uncombined  sulphur  was  not 
shown  in  any  of  the  samples  examined,  except  in  the  preparations  sold  under 
a  trade  name. 

Proprietary  Sodium  Polysulphides:  Quite  recently  there  have  been  in- 
troduced two  commercial  preparations  of  sodium  polysulphides  sold  under 
trade  names.  They  also  consist  of  a  mixture  of  the  polysulphides  and  thio- 
sulphate but  their  sulphur  content  is  greater  than  any  of  the  other  materials 
examined  of  this  character.  Analysis  indicates  an  excess  of  sulphur  used  in 
their  manufacture  so  that  the  maximum  amount  of  sulphur  may  be  rendered 
soluble.  The  base  being  sodium,  a  greater  amount  of  combined  sulphur  is 
possible,  and  a  cheaper  product  is  produced  than  if  the  more  expensive 
potassium  were  used.  They  are  both  granular  yellow  powders  readily 
soluble  in  water  and  are  advertised  as  a  substitute  for  lime-sulphur  solution. 
The  appearance  of  the  diluted  spray  is  identical  in  either  case  so  that  the 
impression  is  quite  general  that  these  powders  are  a  dry  form  of  lime- 
sulphur.  The  advertising  matter  of  one  of  the  preparations  states  that  their 
product  is  made  by  the  fusion  of  soda-ash  (impure  sodium  carbonate)  and 
sulphur  by  a  patented  process. 

The  patent  under  which  the  other  compound  is  made  specifies  "forming 
a  water-soluble  material  for  spraying  plants,  by  heating  together  about  equal 
weights  of  sulphur  and  caustic  soda  to  cause  reaction  and  drive  off  a  portion 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  173 

of  the  water  liberated  but  without  volatilizing  any  of  the  sulphur,  and  form 
a  final  product  containing  about  37  per  cent  sulphur."i 

So  far  as  indicated  by  anaFyses,  the  resulting  product  is  practically  the 
same  in  either  case,  and  the  diluted  spray  would  be  essentially  the  same  as 
the  home-made  wash  proposed  by  Haywood  in  1907.2  The  manufacturers 
claim  from  54  to  62  per  cent  of  total  su'phur  for  their  products  but  the 
samples  thus  far  examined  in  the  Insecticide  Laboratory  have  had  consider- 
ably less  than  this  amount,  usually  running  about  50  per  cent.  The  highest 
official  published  analysis  seen  elsewhere  reports  58  per  cent,  of  total  sulphur. 

COMPATIBILITY    CF    THE    SULPHUR    FUNGICIDES. 

Sulphur:  So  far  as  chemical  action  is  concerned,  sulphur  may  be  mixed 
with  practically  any  of  the  sprays  which  are  in  common  use.  Strong  alkalies, 
however,  might  dissolve  enough  of  the  sulphur  to  cause  foliage  injury.  The 
aversion  of  sulphur  to  water,  however,  prevents  its  mixing  readily  with  it  or 
with  the  sprays,  the  latter  being  a  physical  incompatibility. 

Wettable  Sulphur — Sulphur  Pastes:  The  addition  of  oleic  acid,  glue,  or 
diatomaceous  earth  as  deflocculating  agents  does  not  change  the  compati- 
bilities of  sulphur.  The  constituents  of  iron  sulphide  are  not  affected  by  the 
ordinary  spray  materials.  Therefore  the  preparations  described  under  this 
heading  are  both  physical  and  chemically  compatible  with  all  of  the  sprays 
in  general  use. 

Lime-sulphur:  Lime-sulphur  solution  is  chemically  incompatible  with 
Bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  thought  that  the  fungicidal  value  of  Bordeaux  is  not 
destroyed  by  mixture  with  lime-sulphur  solution,  but  a  part  of  the  soluble 
sulphur  of  the  latter  is  looked  up  as  an  insoluble  copper  sulphide  which  is 
valueless  for  the  destruction  of  mildews. 

Lime-sulphur  solution  is  chemically  incompatible  with  all  arsenlcals  (ex- 
cepting basic  or  neutral  lead  arsenate),  chemically  and  physically  incom- 
patible with  soaps  and  emulsions,  and  chemically  incompatible  with  acids 
and  alkalies. 

It  is  compatible  with  tobacco  preparations  and  with  basic  or  neutral  lead 
arsenate. 

Alkali  Sulphides  and  Polysulphides.  Chemically  incompatible  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

Chemically  incompatible  with  all  arsenicals  (excepting  basic  or  neutral 
lead  arsenate),  and  with  acids. 

Compatible  with  soaps,  emulsions,  alkalies,  tobacco  preparations,  and 
basic  or  neutral  lead  arsenate. 

Summarizing  the  discussion  on  compatibility,  the  following  points  were 
shown:  (1)  Sulphur  is  unsuited  for  use  in  any  of  the  sprays  on  account  of 
its  physical  incompatibility  with  aqueous  solutions.  (2)  Paste  sulphurs  and 
wettable  sulphurs  offer  a  distinct  advantage  over  the  other  sulphur  fungicides 
owing  to  their  compatibility  with  practically  all  of  the  common  sprays,  their 
compatibility  with  Bordeaux  mixture  probably  being  the  most  important 
desirable  quality  of  interest  to  viticulturists.  They  are  the  only  type  of 
sulphur  fungicide  permissible  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  (3)  If  used  in  the 


i  U.  S.  Patent  reissue  13,796,  Chemical  Abstracts,  8,  3480. 
2Loc.  cit. 


174  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

vineyard,  lime-sulphur  must  be  used  alone,  unless  in  combination  with 
tobacco  or  a  special  type  of  lead  arsenate.  (4)  The  alkali  sulphides  and 
polysulphides  have  some  points  of  advantage  over  lime-sulphur  solution  for 
the  reasons  that  soap  may  be  used  with  them  as  a  spreader  and  that  they 
can  be  used  with  a  greater  variety  of  sprays. 


Prof.  Bioletti:  "There  is  a  common  belief  among  grape  growers  that 
sulphur  after  being  placed  on  the  vine  loses  its  strength.  Is  there  any 
possible  change  that  the  sulphur  undergoes  that  could  be  interpreted  as 
making  sulphur  lose  its  strength?" 

Prof.  Gray:     "There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  on  this  subject." 

Mr.  C.  J.  Wetmore,  Mr.  Frank  Henry  and  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Lawrence,  of  Lodi, 
California,  gave  personal  experiences  of  the  use  of  sulphur  in  their  different 
vineyards. 

President  Alwood:  "In  the  East  we  are  using  sulphur  very  largely  in 
treating  the  brown  rot  in  the  peach  and  plum  orchards.  We  use  it  in  a  com- 
bination of  lime  solution.  We  slack  the  lime  and  add  the  sulphur.  I  do  not 
know  whether  it  has  been  applied  to  the  vines  in  the  West  or  not.  We  use 
about  16  pounds  of  sulphur  to  100  gallons  of  wash,  and  for  a  second  applica- 
tion about  8  pounds  of  sulphur  to  100  gallons  of  wash." 


MORNING  SESSION,  JULY  13,   1915. 
GRAPE  INSECTS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

By  H.  J.  QUAYLE, 

Entomologist,  University  of  California,  Citrus  Experiment  Station, 
Riverside,  California. 


While  there  is  more  or  less  injury  done  to  the  grape  by  insect  pests  every 
year  in  California,  there  is  at  present  no  insect  that  requires  such  universal 
treatment  as  is  necessary  for  the  powdery  mildew  or  Oidium.  Nevertheless, 
insect  pests  have  been  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  connection  with 
the  development  of  the  viticultural  industry  of  the  State.  The  phylloxera 
has  caused  probably  not  only  a  greater  actual  loss  than  any  other  single 
thing,  but  it  has  necessitated  important  changes  in  viticultural  methods. 
The  various  phases  of  the  question  of  resistant  stock,  which  have  been  some 
of  the  fundamental  viticultural  problems  of  the  State  for  many  years,  have 
for  their  basis  the  proposition  of  insect  control.  The  phylloxera  has  de- 
stroyed upwards  of  50,000  acres  of  vines  in  California,  but  this  loss  is  now 
very  largely  past  because  of  general  replanting  of  the  vineyards  on  resistant 
stock.  Next  to  the  phylloxera,  the  grape  leaf-hopper  has  been  the  most  in- 
jurious insect  of  the  grape  in  this  State,  but  unlike  the  phylloxera,  the  injury 
by  the  grape  leaf-hopper  has  not  diminished,  but  rather  increased  with  the 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  175 

larger  acreage  of  vines  planted.  In  addition  to  the  two  insects  mentioned, 
there  are  some  half  dozen  other  species  which  do  injury  in  some  sections 
and  in  certain  years. 

THE    PHYLLOXERA. 
Phylloxera  vastratrix,  Planch. 

The  phylloxera  which  is  an  insect  native  to  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  was  introduced  from  that  section  into  France  and  from 
France  into  California.  Since  it  is  in  California  that  most  of  the  vinifera 
vines  occur,  it  is  here  the  phylloxera  has  done  greater  damage  than  elsewhere 
in  the  United  States.  This  damage  has  occurred  chiefly  in  the  Coast  counties 
as  its  spread  has  been  much  more  rapid  there  than  in  the  interior  valleys. 
This  difference  in  the  rate  of  dispersion  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  in 
the  interior  valleys  the  winged  form  seldom,  if  ever,  occurs,  while  in  the 
Coast  sections  the  winged  form  is  common.  The  spread  is  also  more  rapid 
in  heavy  soils  than  in  sandy  soils,  and  in  soils  having  a  high  percentage  of 
sand  the  vines  may  be  much  more  resistant  or  practically  immune. 

The  phylloxera  is  a  minute  sucking  insect  which  does  injury  by  feeding 
upon  the  roots  of  the  grape.  The  injury,  however,  is  not  due  so  much  to  the 
nourishment  taken  from  the  vine  as  to  the  decay  which  follows  the  feeding. 
This  decay  occurs  much  more  seriously  on  the  vinifera  vines  than  on  the 
wild  or  American  vines. 

The  life  history  of  the  phylloxera  is  somewhat  complex  where  all  the 
forms  of  the  insect  occur.  In  the  Eastern  States  the  most  evident  indication 
of  phylloxera  infestation  is  represented  by  the  galls  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves. 

These  leaf  galls  seldom,  if  ever,  occur  in  California.  A  colony  may  arise 
from  a  single  egg  which  has  over-wintered  on  the  rough  bark  of  the  two-year- 
old  wood.  While  this  winter  egg  has  not  been  actually  observed  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  much  more  rapid  spread  of  the  insect  in  the  coast  sections,  where 
the  winged  form  occurs,  can  scarcely  be  accounted  for  unless  the  winter 
eggs  are  laid.  Upon  hatching,  the  insect  makes  its  way  to  the  leaves,  and 
becomes  a  gall  maker  where  it  gives  rise  to  a  new  generation  of  egg-laying 
root-feeders.  In  California,  where  the  gall  form  is  not  found  it  is 
probable  that,  in  case  the  winter  egg  actually  occurs,  that  the  insect  arising 
from  this  egg  goes  directly  to  the  roots.  Generations  of  this  form  follow  one 
another  throughout  the  growing  period  of  the  vine  until  there  is  a  total  of 
probably  seven  or  eight.  In  the  interior  valleys,  this  root-feeding  form  is 
practically  the  only  form  which  occurs.  In  midsummer  and  later,  some  of 
the  eggs  deposited  by  the  root-feeding  form  develop  into  nymphs  which 
finally  acquire  wings,  emerge  from  the  soil,  and  form  new  colonies  from 
eggs  deposited  on  the  under  side  of  the  grape  leaf.  The  eggs  from  a  single 
individual  number  from  three  to  six  and  they  are  of  two  sizes,  the  smaller 
of  which  produce  the  males.  The  females  arising  from  the  larger  eggs,  after 
fertilization,  move  to  the  rough  bark  of  the  two-year-old  wood  and  deposit 
the  single  winter  egg  already  referred  to. 

There  have  been  four  principal  methods  adopted  for  the  control  of  the 
phylloxera,  namely:  1,  injection  of  carbon  bisulphide;  2,  flooding;  3,  planting 
in  sand;  4,  planting  vines  grafted  into  resistant  stock.  The  T^st  of  these 


176  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

methods  has  been  practically  the  only  one  followed  in  California,  and  since 
this  is  a  viticultural,  rather  than  an  entomological  problem,  it  will  not  be 
further  discussed. 

GRAPE    LEAF-HOPPER. 
Typhlocyba  comes,  Say. 

The  grape  leaf-hopper  occurs  in  numbers  sufficient  to  be  a  pest  in  the 
Sacramento,  San  Joaquin  and  Imperial  valleys.  It  rarely  becomes  injurious 
in  the  Coast  valleys  or  the  grape  sections  of  Southern  California  aside  from 
the  Imperial  and  Coachella  valleys.  The  injury  occasioned  by  the  grape 
leaf-hopper  is  indicated  by  the  leaf  becoming  at  first  a  silvery  color,  later 
turning  to  yellow  and  finally  to  brown,  when  it  drops  from  the  vine.  Leaves 
thus  affected  occur  most  commonly  about  the  crown  of  the  vine,  though  in 
cases  of  serious  injury  all  of  the  leaves  will  show  this  effect.  Many  of  the 
leaves  may  become  functionless  or  drop  off  as  early  as  June  or  July,  and 
this  early  loss  of  foliage  prevents  the  berry  from  maturing  properly.  The 
lack  of  full  foliage  to  the  end  of  the  season  also  prevents  the  canes  from 
ripening  normally  for  next  year's  wood.  The  buds  fail  to  develop  in  the 
following  spring,  and  thus  the  vine  may  be  more  or  less  permanently  stunted 
in  growth  in  serious  cases  or  hopper  injury. 

The  grape  leaf-hopper  passes  the  winter  as  an  adult  insect  which  may 
feed  on  various  plants  growing  in  the  vineyard  or  the  vicinity  during  the 
warmer  weather.  During  cold  or  wet  weather  the  hopper  remains  under 
leaves  or  rubbish  or  low  down  on  the  plants  upon  which  it  feeds.  When  the 
vine  comes  into  leaf  in  the  spring  the  hopper  leaves  its  winter  food  plants 
and  feeds  exclusively  on  the  grape  leaf  until  the  leaves  fall  in  the  autumn. 

The  young  hoppers,  or  nymphs,  begin  to  hatch  about  the  first  of  May  in 
the  Fresno  section,  a  little  later  farther  north,  and  two  or  three  weeks 
earlier  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  in  the  extreme  south.  The  young  of  the 
second  generation  begin  to  appear  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  making  two 
generations  of  the  insect  in  a  season. 

Probably  the  most  generally  satisfactory  method  of  control  for  the  grape 
leaf-hopper  is  spraying  for  the  nymphs  or  young.  The  adults  are  almost 
impossible  to  kill  with  the  spray,  while  the  nymphs  are  very  susceptible  to 
several  different  kinds  of  spray  material.  The  chief  difficulty  in  spraying  is 
to  get  the  material  on  the  under  side  of  the  vine  where  the  hoppers  are,  and 
there  is  a  further  objection  that  the  eggs  which  are  within  the  tissues  of  the 
leaf,  as  well  as  the  adults,  which  are  also  present,  are  not  affected  by  the 
spray.  In  spite  of  these  drawbacks,  spraying  for  the  nymphs  will  pay  when 
the  hoppers  are  abundant  and  doing  much  damage.  The  spray  found  most 
efficient  in  killing  the  young,  as  well  as  most  neutral  to  the  grape  foliage 
and  berry,  is  as  follows: 

Blackleaf,  40  per  cent 1  pint 

Liquid  soap  (or  hard  soap  2  Ibs.) %  gallon 

Water 200  gallons 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  hopper  spraying  is  the  time  of 
application.  If  the  spray  is  applied  too  early,  too  many  eggs  which  have  not 
yet  hatched  will  escape  because  the  spray  cannot  reach  them;  if  too  late, 
many  young  will  have  become  adult  winged  hoppers  which  cannot  be  killed 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  177 

by  the  spray,  and  which  will  deposit  their  full  quota  of  eggs.  For  the  Fresno 
section  of  this  State  in  average  years,  the  time  of  spraying  will  be  from 
about  May  20th  to  June  10th.  The  criterion  to  go  by  for  each  year  and 
locality  is  to  begin  spraying  as  soon  as  some  of  the  nymphs  are  in  the  last 
nymphal  stage. 

THE    CALIFORNIA    GRAPE    ROOT    WORM. 
Adoxus  obscurus  Fourcroy. 

This  pest  of  the  vine  occurs  in  more  or  less  restricted  localities  in  the 
San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys  between  Merced  and  Marysville.  It 
also  occurs  in  the  Sonoma  Valley,  but  is  not  known  as  a  pest  on  the  grape 
elsewhere  in  California.  This  insect  injures  both  the  roots  and  the  growing 
parts  of  the  vine  above  ground.  The  most  evident  indication  of  infestation 
of  this  beetle  is  in  the  narrow  chain-like  strips  which  are  eaten  out  of  the 
leaves.  The  beetle  also  gouges  out  parts  of  the  petioles,  pedicels,  berries  and 
shoots.  The  larva  does  injury  under  ground  by  eating  off  the  small  rootlets 
or  by  gouging  out  strips  of  the  bark  of  the  larger  roots.  In  cases  of  serious 
injury  by  this  larva,  most  of  the  little  rootlets  will  be  eaten  off  and  a  large 
part  of  the  bark  of  the  larger  roots.  Vines  thus  affected  show  a  stunted 
condition,  the  canes  fail  to  attain  a  normal  growth,  and  in  severe  cases  the 
vine  may  be  killed  outright. 

The  adult  beetles  appear  in  May  and  June,  having  emerged  from  the 
ground  where  they  have  been  since  the  previous  year  and  where  they  have 
passed  through  the  larval  and  pupal  stages.  This  beetle  begins  at  once  to 
feed  upon  the  parts  of  the  vine  above  ground  as  already  indicated.  After 
feeding  for  a  couple  of  weeks,  egg  laying  begins,  the  eggs  being  deposited  on 
the  inner  bark  or  in  crevices,  usually  beneath  two  or  three  layers  of  the  old 
bark.  They  are  laid  in  clusters  of  from  four  or  five  to  twenty-five  or  thirty. 
Upon  hatching,  the  young  larva  crawls  or  drops  to  the  ground  and  makes  its 
way  to  the  roots  where  it  begins  at  once  to  feed.  It  continues  feeding 
throughout  the  growing  period  of  the  vine,  lies  more  or  less  dormant  during 
the  winter,  and  comes  to  within  eight  or  ten  inches  of  the  surface  in  the 
spring  for  pupation,  finally  transforming  to  the  adult  and  emerging  from  the 
soil  about  the  first  of  May  of  the  following  year. 

The  adult  beetle  is  very  readily  jarred  from  the  vine  and  thus  they  may 
be  captured  on  a  screen  or  tray  provided  for  the  purpose.  This  is  particu- 
larly applicable  where  the  infestation  is  restricted  to  small  areas  in  a  vine- 
yard. It  requires,  however,  to  be  repeated  several  times  because  new  beetles 
keep  emerging  from  the  soil  for  a  month  or  more.  Where  the  infestation  is 
general  over  a  vineyard,  the  most  satisfactory  treatment  is  to  spray  the 
vines  with  a  poison  such  as  arsenate  of  lead.  Here  again  the  application 
may  be  required  to  be  repeated  because  of  the  new  growth  continually 
appearing  on  the  vine. 

CUT  WORMS. 

Cut  worms  do  more  or  less  damage  in  certain  sections  every  year,  but 
in  occasional  years  they  become  very  abundant  and  do  serious  injury.  1914 
was  one  of  the  years  in  which  they  occurred  in  great  numbers  in  a  large 


178  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

section  of  the  country  about  Fresno.  There  are  several  different  species  of 
cut  worms,  but  the  two  most  common  occurring  in  the  Fresno  section 
are  probably  "Paragrotis  messoria,"  and  "Peridroma  margaritosa  sauci." 
Cut  worms  appear  in  the  early  spring  and  eat  off  the  expanding  buds.  They 
also  feed  upon  the  young  leaves  as  they  appear,  but  an  early  attack  on  the 
swelling  buds  is  when  the  most  serious  damage  is  done  because  the  removal 
of  the  principal  buds  destroys  the  fruit  and  the  later  buds  usually  produce 
sterile  shoots.  The  eggs  are  laid  mostly  on  the  stems  of  grasses  near  the 
ground.  The  larvae  hatching  from  these  feed  near  the  ground,  and  since  they 
work  mostly  at  night  they  are  not  readily  seen  in  their  concealed  situations 
during  the  day.  Since  there  is  plenty  of  vegetation  they  do  not  do  conspicu- 
ous injury  to  the  crop.  A  second  generation  appears  in  midsummer  and 
these  feed  upon  the  grass  and  other  vegetation  similarly  to  the  first  genera- 
tion, and  when  winter  sets  in  they  are  but  partly  grown.  It  is  in  this  partly 
grown  larval  stage  which  they  spend  the  winter  in  a  more  or  less  dormant 
condition.  When  the  buds  begin  to  expand  on  the  vines  and  fruit  trees, 
these  partly  grown  larvae  become  very  active  and  climb  into  the  vine  or 
fruit  tree  and  very  voraciously  feed  upon  buds. 

The  most  satisfactory  control  measure  for  these  insects  is  an  application 
of  poisoned  bait  about  the  ground  just  at  the  base  of  the  vine.  During  the 
day  the  worms  will  be  found  just  below  the  surface  at  the  base  of  the  vine 
and  come  out  at  night  to  feed  upon  the  buds  or  leaves.  When  they  emerge 
at  night  they  will  come  in  contact  with  the  poisoned  bait  and  will  be  satisfied 
with  that  rather  than  climbing  into  the  vine.  In  the  case  of  vines  which 
are  pruned  high  and  where  there  is  more  or  less  trunk  to  the  vine,  the  worms 
will  not  always  go  down  to  the  ground  to  remain  concealed  during  the  day, 
but  will  secrete  themselves  under  the  bark  on  the  trunk  of  the  vine.  In 
such  cases  it  is  necessary  to  apply  the  poisoned  bait  in  the  crotch  of  the  vine 
as  well  as  on  the  ground. 

In  certain  limited  sections  and  during  occasional  years,  vineyardists  are 
obliged  to  combat  the  army  worm.  This  is  an  insect  very  closely  related  to 
the  cut  worms  just  mentioned,  but  is  a  distinct  species,  being  the  well  known 
army  worm  which  occurs  more  abundantly  in  the  Eastern  States  than  in 
California.  The  second  generation  of  the  army  worm  in  California  appears 
about  the  first  week  in  August,  and  since  at  this  time  the  grain  fields  upon 
which  it  has  been  feeding  previously,  afford  very  little  succulent  growth, 
they  leave  such  situations  and  acquire  the  migratory  habit,  and  march  off 
in  a  definite  direction  in  enormous  numbers.  Where  an  outbreak  of  these 
army  worms  is  discovered  in  a  neighboring  grain  field,  they  can  be  very  com- 
pletely prevented  from  entering  the  vineyard  by  plowing  a  furrow  with  the 
vertical  side  of  the  furrow  next  to  the  vineyard  to  be  protected.  The  army 
worms  marching  into  this  furrow,  will  be  unable  to  ascend  the  vertical  side 
and  they  may  be  killed  in  this  furrow  in  any  way  which  seems  most  feasible. 
Usually  holes  are  dug  every  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  the  furrow  and  the 
worms,  unable  to  scale  the  side,  will  crawl  along  the  furrow  and  drop  into 
these  holes  where  they  may  be  destroyed  by  sprinkling  with  a  little  gasoline 
and  dropping  in  a  lighted  match.  If  they  are  already  in  a  portion  of  the 
vineyard,  the  furrow  may  be  made  in  the  same  way  to  protect  the  portion 
not  yet  reached.  The  vines  already  attacked  can  scarcely  be  saved  from 
defoliation  because  of  the  very  great  numbers  of  the  worms,  but  they  may 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  179 

be  checked  to  a  considerable  extent  by  spraying  very  heavily  with  a  strong 
poison  spray,  thus  killing  thenr  where  the  vines  are  already  infested. 

GRASSHOPPERS. 

The  most  serious  injury  done  by  grasshoppers  is  where  outbreaks  of 
these  insects  occur,  coming  in  from  surrounding  uncultivated  lands.  Vine- 
yards most  likely  to  be  subject  to  this  attack,  occur  in  new  sections  where 
there  is  considerable  pasture  land  in  the  vicinity.  The  eggs  of  the  grass- 
hopper are  laid  in  the  ground  in  the  late  summer  or  fall  in  uncultivated  land. 
These  eggs  remain  in  the  ground  during  the  winter  and  hatch  in  the  follow- 
ing spring. 

Grasshoppers  may  be  controlled  by  a  poisoned  bait,  by  spraying  heavily 
a  few  rows  along  the  border  of  the  field,  by  the  hopperdozer,  by  burning 
waste  areas,  and  by  the  introduction  of  turkeys  into  the  vineyard.  A  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  of  these  measures  may  be  used  to  fit  particular  cases. 
Of  the  methods  used  to  directly  protect  vineyards,  poisoned  bait  is  probably 
the  most  common. 

GRAPE   LEAF   FOLDER. 

Desmia  funeralis  HUb. 

This  insect  occurs  in  scattering  numbers  over  a  wide  section  of  Cali- 
fornia, but  important  injury  is  done  only  in  restricted  localities  and  during 
occasional  years.  The  insects  may  be  detected  in  a  vineyard  by  the  char- 
acteristic rolling  of  the  leaves.  One  edge  is  rolled  up  rather  tightly  to  about 
one-half  way  across  the  leaf,  making  a  tube  less  than  the  diameter  of  a  lead 
pencil  in  which  the  larva  lives.  The  leaf  is  always  rolled  on  the  under  side. 
The  larvae  feed  by  eating  off  the  free  edge  of  the  leaf  in  the  interior  of 
the  roll,  so  that  they  are  always  protected  by  the  outer  layers  of  the  rolled 
portion.  The  insect  hibernates  as  a  chrysalis,  appearing  and  laying  eggs 
upon  the  vine  in  the  spring.  There  are  apparently  two  generations  of  the 
insect  during  the  year  in  California.  This  same  insect  is  a  more  or  less 
important  pest  of  the  vine  in  the  Eastern  States,  but  there  its  habits  are  strik- 
ingly different  from  that  of  California.  In  the  East  the  leaf  is  simply  folded 
over  on  the  upper  surface  and  the  edge  is  sewed  down  by  strands  of  silk, 
while  in  California  the  leaf  is  very  distinctly  rolled.  As  a  general  rule  the  leaf 
folder  does  not  occur  in  numbers  sufficient  to  warrant  treatment,  and  the 
only  treatment  applicable  would  be  the  application  of  an  arsenical  spray  just 
after  the  eggs  are  hatching  and  before  the  rolling  of  the  leaves  occurs. 
Once  the  leaf  is  rolled  the  insect  is  completely  protected  from  the  spray 
and  the  only  way  to  rid  the  vine  of  them  in  that  stage  is  to  pick  them  off 
or  crush  them  within  the  roll. 

HAWK    MOTH    LARVAE. 

These  larvae,  while  occurring  in  occasional  numbers,  are  of  little  con- 
sequence as  a  pest  except  once  in  a  great  while  when  outbreaks  of  them 
occur  and  they  do  serious  injury  to  small  areas  of  vines.  These  larvae  are 
very  large  worms  similar  to  those  which  attack  tomatoes  and  tobacco.  The 
insect  hibernates  in  the  pupal  or  chrysalis  state  and  while  in  the  ground, 
may  be  distinguished  as  a  large  cylindrical  object  of  a  dark  brown  color. 
a.bout  the  middle  of  May  they  emerge  from  the  ground  and  deposit  their 


180  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  grape.  The  larvae,  upon  hatching,  begin  to  feed 
immediately  upon  the  foliage.  There  are  two  generations  of  this  insect 
in  a  season.  While  there  are  several  species  of  hawk  moth  larvae,  the  most 
common  one  of  the  grape  is  "Pholus  achemon."  Where  there  are  but 
occasional  specimens  of  this  insect  occurring  in  a  vineyard  the  only  practical 
treatment  is  to  pick  them  off  by  hand.  Where  there  is  a  serious  outbreak 
over  a  large  area,  however,  the  vines  may  be  sprayed  with  an  arsenical 
while  the  worms  are  still  very  small. 


LEAF    CHAFERS    AND    FLEA    BEETLES. 

Insects  having  the  above  common  names  appear  on  the  grape  occasion- 
ally in  California  but  are  not  generally  serious  pests.  The  larvae  of  the  leaf 
chafers  usually  feed  upon  the  roots  of  grasses  growing  in  the  vicinity,  while 
the  injury  to  the  vine  is  due  to  the  attacks  of  the  adult  beetle.  The  two 
most  common  species  of  leaf  chafers  attacking  the  vine  in  this  State  are 
"Serica  mixta"  and  "Hoplia  pubicollis."  Since  these  insects  appear  usually 
in  immense  swarms  they  are  very  difficult  to  control.  They  may,  however, 
be  jarred  off  the  vines  or  the  vines  may  be  sprayed  with  an  arsenical  spray. 

While  there  are  several  species  of  the  flea  beetle  occurring  in  the  State, 
probably  the  most  common  one  on  the  grape  is  "Haltica  carinata."  These 
beetles  have  often  been  confused  with  the  grape  root  worm  discussed  in  the 
earlier  pages  of  this  paper.  They  may,  however,  be  distinguished  from  the 
root  worm  because  of  their  bluish  color  and  the  fact  that  they  are  capable  of 
jumping.  The  flea  bettle  also  eats  out  irregular  holes  in  the  leaf  which  may 
differ  in  size  and  shape,  while  root  beetles  eat  out  narrow  strips  of  very 
uniform  size  and  shape.  The  flea  beetle  passes  the  winter  among  the  leaves 
or  in  other  situations  affording  protection  for  the  adult  beetle.  They 
emerge  in  the  early  spring  and  begin  to  feed  upon  the  buds  of  the  vine. 
The  buds  may  be  entirely  eaten  away  or  they  may  have  the  centers  gouged 
out  so  that  they  are  completely  destroyed.  After  thus  feeding  for  some  time 
they  begin  depositing  their  eggs,  generally  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark  or  at  the 
base  of  the  buds.  The  larvae  hatching  from  these  attack  the  leaves  or  eat 
holes  in  the  buds  as  already  indicated.  After  feeding  for  three  or  four 
weeks  and  becoming  full  grown  larvae,  they  drop  to  the  ground,  make  a 
little  cell  just  beneath  the  surface  and  change  to  pupae.  Beetles  emerge  a 
week  or  two  later  and  feed  upon  the  leaves.  There  are  thus  two  generations 
a  year.  Since  flea  beetles  feed  upon  the  foliage  both  as  larvae  and  adults, 
they  may  be  readily  controlled  by  means  of  an  arsenical  spray  such  as 
arsenate  of  lead. 


THE  MEALY  BUG  OF  THE  GRAPE. 

During  recent  years  in  certain  sections  of  Fresno  and  Stanislaus  county 
there  has  appeared  a  mealy  bug  which  attacks  the  grape  and  which  has 
given  more  or  less  concern  to  grape  growers.  The  particular  species  con- 
cerned has  not  been  positively  identified  but  the  evidence  seems  to  indicate 
that  it  is  probably  new.  This  insect  over-winters  very  largely  in  the  egg 
stage,  the  egg  masses  being  secreted  under  the  layers  of  the  old  bark.  The 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  181 

most  important  injury  is  done  in  midsummer  when  the  insects  congregate 
in  large  numbers  in  the  grape  clusters.  The  presence  of  the  insects  them- 
selves together  with  the  honey  dew  which  is  secreted  by  them,  renders  the 
cluster  unsightly  and  unattractive  and  also  makes  the  berry  much  more 
susceptible  to  decay  infections. 

The  only  remedy  which  seems  feasible  at  present  is  to  take  off  and  burn 
all  of  the  loose  bark  of  the  vine  during  the  winter  season  and  afterwards 
spray  the  vines  thoroughly  with  distillate  emulsion. 


PHYLLOXERA  IN   CALIFORNIA. 

By  R.  L.  NOUGARET, 
United  States  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Walnut  Creek,  California.* 


Phylloxera  vastatrix  Planchon. 

The  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, for  the  past  few  years,  has  been  making  an  investigation  of  the  grape 
phylloxera  under  existing  California  conditions.  This  work  is  about  con- 
pleted,  and  a  report  on  the  results  of  this  investigation,  which  is  being  con- 
ducted by  Mr.  W.  X.  Davidson  and  the  writer,  will  shortly  be  published. 
This  paper,  in  abbreviated  form,  presents  such  extracts  of  this  report  as  are 
of  interest,  considered  from  a  viticultural  viewpoint. 

The  difference  which  apparently  seems  to  exist  in  the  degree  of  injury 
caused  to  the  vineyards  of  California,  compared  to  that  which  affected  those 
of  Europe,  prompted  this  investigation.  In  France  the  devastation  of  vine- 
yards progressed  uninterruptedly.  Once  infested,  the  vines  died  in  a  short 
time.  The  spread  of  the  insect  wras  alarmingly  rapid  in  its  course  from 
one  vineyard  district  to  another,  and  mostly  due  to  its  natural  habit.  In  the 
course  of  twenty-two  years'  time,  from  1863,  when  the  phylloxera's  injury 
was  first  noticed,  to  1885,  the  infestation  had  spread  over  an  area  of  one 
million  hectares  (approximately  two  million  and  a  half  acres),  a  good  portion 
of  which  was  completely  dead.  In  California  the  great  boom  in  vineyard 
planting,  which  occurred  from  1880  to  1883,  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
spread  of  the  pest  by  vines  being  used  from  infested  vineyards  for  planting 
out  the  new  ones,  rather  than  to  the  natural  spread  of  the  insect  due  to  its 
biological  traits.  The  affected  vineyards  also  differ  essentially,  inasmuch 
as  the  vines  withstand  the  injury  for  a  much  longer  time  than  vinifera 
varieties  did  in  France.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  in  California  vineyards 
known  to  have  been  infested  fifteen  or  twenty  years  and  still  bearing  crops 
that  justify  the  expense  of  cultivation.  The  vines  comprised  in  the  char- 
acteristic "oil  spot,"  or  primarily  infested  area,  gradually  become  stunted  in 
growth,  then  cease  bearing  grapes,  or  the  very  few  produced  are  worthless, 
but  continue  for  years  to  put  forth  a  stubby  growth  before  dying.  The 


*  Published  with  the  permission  of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology. 


182  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

appearance  of  a  phylloxera  spot  in  a  vineyard  generally  means  an  infestation 
of  several  years  standing,  perhaps  as  many  as  ten  years  or  more.  Through- 
out the  vineyard,  on  the  roots  of  many  apparently  vigorous  vines,  inspection 
will  reveal  the  presence  of  the  insect.  Eventually  other  well  denned  spots 
will  be  noticeable,  but  even  in  this  advanced  stage  there  are  but  compara- 
tively few  dead  vines.  This  applies  to  vines  eight  to  twelve  years  old  before 
being  infested.  Young  vines,  infested  from  the  beginning,  last  a  much 
shorter  time,  and  the  injury  of  the  insect  produces  a  more  pronounced  effect. 

As  a  result  of  this  investigation,  both  from  a  viticultural  as  well  as  an 
entomological  standpoint,  a  most  important  fact  pertaining  to  this  subject 
has  been  placed  on  record.  It  is  also  of  economic  interest,  because  of  its 
bearing  upon  the  mode  of  spread  of  the  insect,  and  its  consequent  relation 
to  the  severity  of  the  damage  to  the  viticultural  industry.  The  leaf-gall 
form  of  the  phylloxera  does  not  exist  in  California.  This  is  true  for  the 
American  varieties  of  grapes,  which  are  most  susceptible  to  this  form  of  the 
insect,  as  well  as  for  the  varieties  of  the  Vitis  vinifera.  To  establish  this 
fact  with  certainty,  a  careful  canvass  has  been  made,  and  correspondence 
exchanged  with  the  entomologists  of  this  State,  and  with  persons  profes- 
sionally and  commercially  identified  with  California  viticulture;  with  but  one 
exception  all  observations  concur  to  prove  the  absence  of  the  phylloxera 
leaf-gall  form  in  the  California  vineyards.  This  exception  deserves  special 
mention,  because  of  the  authority  of  the  statement  and  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances pertaining  to  the  production  of  the  galls. 

Dr.  F.  W.  Morse  of  Oakland,  Cal.,  then  Assistant  in  the  General  Agricul- 
tural Laboratory  of  the  University  of  California  from  1881  to  1886,  carried 
on  investigations  of  the  phylloxera  in  said  State.  Late  in  August,  1884,  he 
found  a  few  galls  on  the  ends  of  three  canes  of  a  Canada  vine  growing  in 
the  vineyard  plot  on  the  University  grounds.  Quoting  him  from  Bulletin 
No.  19  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of  California, 
he  found  "few  peculiarly  formed  galls,  containing  egg-laying  mother-lice, 
as  well  as  eggs,  and  numerous  larvae.  A  few  isolated  and  abandoned  ones 
were  found  on  the  old  leaves  nearer  the  stock  of  the  vine."  Evidently  these 
were  lice  of  a  progeny  of  the  ones  which  produced  the  galls  on  the  older 
leaves.  They  had  increased  but  little,  and  struggled  along  for  existence 
since  spring,  contrary  to  their  habit  under  Eastern  condition,  when  they 
are  very  prolific;  they  were  never  observed  before  that  time,  nor  afterwards; 
their  presence  on  this  occasion  can,  therefore,  be  considered  as  accidental. 

Life  History. 

Space  in  this  paper  does  not  permit  giving  a  detailed  description  of  the 
different  forms  of  the  grape  phylloxera.  It  will  suffice  to  point  out  in  what 
respect  its  life  history  differs  under  California  conditions  from  that  influenced 
by  existing  conditions  of  its  original  habitat. 

In  California  the  life  cycle  of  the  insect  is  restricted  to  parthenogenetic 
reproduction,  and  to  the  radicicole  or  root  form  only.  It  comprises  this  form 
in  the  two  stages  of  Hibernant  and  Radicicole  mother-louse.  The  Radicicole 
of  spring  passes  through  the  pupa  or  nymph  stage  to  become  the  alate  form, 
also  a  root  form,  or  Winged  Migrant,  which  emerges  from  the  ground  only  to 
oviposit,  and  is  also  parthenogenetic.  A  great  number  of  the  Winged  Migrants 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  183 

are  sterile,  in  the  meaning  that  these  do  not  deposit  eggs.  However,  when 
mounted  for  microscopic  examination,  generally  two  large  eggs  are  discern- 
ible in  the  bodies  of  these  sterile  migrants.  This  sterility  may  be  ascribed 
to  incomplete  parthenogenesis.  A  relatively  small  number  only  of  the  winged 
migrants  oviposite — one  to  five  eggs  being  the  number;  two,  a  fair  average. 
The  eggs  lack  vitality;  they  fail  to  give  issue  to  healthy  active  sexed  forms. 
Most  of  the  eggs  do  not  hatch,  and  when  they  do,  the  young  die  in  the  act 
of  molting.  Hence,  in  California  the  winged  migrant  stage  is  the  end  of 
the  progress  in  the  insect's  life  cycle  towards  the  production  of  the  gallicole 
or  leaf-gall  form.  This  corroborates  field  observations  and  explains  why 
grape  phylloxera  leaf-galls  are  never  found  in  California  vineyards,  not  even 
when  composed  of  varieties  of  American  grape. 

Hibernants  differ  in  no  respect  of  structural  form  from  the  radicicole 
young  larvae.  The  latter  attain  maturity  the  same  season,  on  an  average 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-one  days  after  hatching,  while  the  former  make 
their  way  up  along  the  roots  in  search  of  a  place  to  settle  down  on,  and 
pass  the  winter  in  a  dormant  state.  They  neither  molt,  nor  increase  in  size 
before  they  settle  down.  They  awaken  about  the  middle  of  March,  and  after 
four  molts  attain  maturity,  in  five  weeks'  time  on  an  average.  These  adults 
are  the  first  radicicole  mother-lice  of  the  year.  Hibernation  begins  in  Sep- 
tember; by  December  there  are  no  more  active  young  larvae,  all  are  hiber- 
nants;  adults  are  very  scarce  and  no  longer  oviposit.  From  March  to 
December  there  are  from  four  to  five  generations  of  the  radicicole  apterous 
form.  From  late  June  to  October  a  small  proportion  of  the  young  larvae, 
the  number  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  roots  and  on  their  more  or  less 
healthy  condition,  differentiate  after  the  second  molt,  and  become  pupae 
or  nymphs;  these  after  two  more  molts  attain  the  adult  stage  of  winged 
migrants,  which  live  from  one  to  four  days,  rarely  more.  The  nymph  works 
its  way  up  toward  the  surface  of  the  ground;  after  transformation,  the 
winged  migrant  emerges  from  the  ground. 

In  late  June  or  July  a  very  marked  migratory  movement  of  the  recently 
hatched  larvae  takes  place  from  the  roots  in  the  deeper  soil  towards  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  some  traveling  on  the  roots,  but  many  more  abandon- 
ing them  for  cracks  and  crevices  in  the  soil  by  which  they  gain  egress  to 
the  surface.  This  is  in  fact  a  true  migration,  and  these  young  active  apterous 
radicicole  larvae  furnish  the  only  means  by  which  the  phylloxera  spreads  in 
California.  The  term  "wanderer"  is  a  suitable  designation  for  these  wingless 
migrants,  and  avoids  confusion  with  the  winged  form  to  which  the  term 
migrant  is  usually  applied. 

The  wanderers,  if  not  exposed  to  the  direct  heat  of  the  sun,  can  live  for 
several  days  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  can  reach  neighboring 
vines,  as  yet  not  infested,  by  crawling  to  them,  or  by  the  aid  of  the  wind, 
be  carried  to  different  parts  of  a  vineyard.  Infestation  from  vineyard  to 
vineyard,  or  from  one  viticultural  district  to  another,  can  possibly  happen 
by  the  exchange  of  grape-picking  boxes,  into  the  cracks  or  joints  of  which 
wanderers  have  crept,  they  thus  being  transported  from  one  place  to  another. 


184  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Spread. 

As  there  exists  in  California  no  aerial  form  of  the  insect,  there  is  con- 
sequently neither  sexed  form,  winter  eggs,  nor  gall  louse,  as  far  as  present 
investigations  have  been  able  to  discover,  although  these  may  at  rare  inter- 
vals accidentally  occur;  there  is,  therefore,  practically  no  danger  in  spread- 
ing the  pests  if  cuttings  be  used  for  planting  vineyards  in  uninfested  districts, 
even  though  obtained  from  an  infested  one;  providing,  however,  they  be 
made  late  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  and  not  buried  in  infested  ground  while 
awaiting  shipment.  Cuttings  are  very  safe  if  free  of  adhering  soil,  and 
especially  if  submitted  to  the  warm  water  method  of  disinfection.  Rooted 
vines  are  dangerous,  and  require  a  careful  cleaning  of  the  roots  for  dis- 
infection to  be  effective. 

The  wanderer,  apterous  migratory  larvae,  is  the  only  means  of  spread 
due  to  the  natural  effort  of  the  insect. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  reason  the  phylloxera  is  so  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  State  is  because  of  the  great  activity  in  planting  of  vine- 
yards in  different  districts  which  occurred  during  a  period  of  years  extend- 
ing from  1880  to,  and  as  late  as,  1892.  First,  in  the  southern  portion  of 
Sonoma  Valley,  and  Napa  Valley,  then  in  Livermore  Valley,  and  later  in 
the  Santa  Clara  Valley. 

Vineyard  troubles  in  Southern  California  were  due  more  to  other  causes 
than  to  phylloxera.  In  Fresno,  the  Muscat  Raisin  District,  the  phylloxera  has 
been  present  for  more  than  twenty  years.  The  spread  is  slow,  and  the 
vines  show  a  remarkable  resistance  before  dying.  In  the  Stockton  district 
infestation  dates  back  to  the  early  SO's.  While  in  the  raisin  district 
of  Sutter  County,  where  Thompson  Seedless  (Sultanina)  grapes  are  almost 
exclusively  used  for  raisins,  the  infestation  is  of  more  recent  date,  probably 
twelve  years  or  so  and  due  to  one  of  the  few  wine  grape  vineyards. 

In  every  instance  the  spread  is  slow,  and  the  Vinifera  varieties  in 
general  give  evidence  of  a  longer  resistance  to  the  injury  of  the  insect 
than  in  Europe. 

Centers  of  Early  Infestation. 

The  grape  phylloxera  is  not  a  native  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  was  im- 
ported to  California,  and  contrary  to  the  current  impression  that  the  early 
European  importations  of  grapes  to  the  State  are  responsible  for  the  intro- 
duction of  this  pest,  there  is  greater  probability  that  it  was  brought  over 
from  its  native  habitat  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  prior  to  that. 

Without  consulting  any  other  source  of  information  than  the  first 
annual  report  of  the  California  Commission  of  Viticulture  published  in  1881, 
this  fact  can  be  made  evident. 

During  the  early  settlement  of  California  the  Mission  fathers  brought 
over  with  them,  among  other  European  plants,  a  Vitis  vinifera  variety  of 
grape,  now  known  as  the  Mission  Grape,  and  the  first  cultivated  grape  to 
be  grown  on  this  Coast.  There  may  have  been  other  varieties  brought  over 
during  the  same  period;  if  so,  this  one  proved  itself  of  superior  adaptability, 
gave  better  satisfaction  and  was  the  only  one  propagated.  The  fruit  has  a 
delicate  flavor,  is  very  sweet  and  very  palatable.  The  vine  is  prolific  and 
but  little  subject  to  fungus  diseases.  For  years  it  answered  all  requirements 
of  both  table  and  wine  grape. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  185 

When  the  first  excitement  of  the  gold  discovery  was  waning,  because  of 
the  travel  across  the  plains  being  seconded  by  that  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  rapidly  increasing  the  population  to  such  an  extent  that  gold  min- 
ing was  no  longer  the  sole  pursuit,  the  pioneers  branched  out  into  commerce 
and  agriculture.  Viticulture  soon  grew  in  importance  because  of  the  favor- 
able climate  and  soil  of  the  country. 

Vineyards  of  Mission  grapes  increased  in  acreage,  and  as  the  economic 
status  of  the  grape  industry  proved  to  be  a  success,  the  growers  desired  to 
improve  upon  the  Mission  grape.  American  varieties  were  introduced  from 
the  East,  for  table  grapes,  and  from  Europe,  Vinifera  varieties,  for  the  wine 
industry.  Prior  to  this,  there  is  no  doubt  that  pioneers  crossing  the  plains 
brought  over  with  them  American  varieties  from  their  Eastern  homes  with- 
out giving  any  thought  to  insect  infestation. 

Quoting  from  the  report  already  mentioned:  iln  the  southern  part  of 
the  County  of  Sonoma,  the  Buena  Vista  Company  planted  "a  vineyard  of 
about  one  thousand  vines  in  1834-35  ....  in  1850-52  the  vineyard  was  in- 
creased; in  1857  one  hundred  acres  were  put  in  vines.  Again  in  1860  fifty 
acres  were  laid  out;  in  1862  Colonel  A.  Haraszthy  planted  seventy  thousand 
European  vines.  The  Buena  Vista  Company  again  planted  in  1864  one  hun- 
dred thousand  vines." 

Prior  then  to  1862,  when  mention  is  made  of  European  vines,  most  vines 
planted  must  have  been  of  the  Mission  variety. 

Quoting  again,  "As  early  as  1860  decayed  and  dying  vines  were  noticed 
in  the  vineyard."  Although  this  was  attributed  to  alkali  water,  "no  examin- 
ation by  microscope  was  made,  vines  dying  from  time  to  time,  showing  short 
growth,  small  and  colorless  grapes,  early  yellow  leaves,  in  fact  all  the  symp- 
toms were  observed  of  vines  dying  from  the  vine  pest.  In  1868  about  three 
acres  of  diseased  grape  vines  were  taken  up  (planted  in  1850)  ....  and  new 
vines  were  planted,  which  grew  well,  showing  little  signs  of  decay  until 
they  were  four  years  old." 

Same  report,  appendix  D,  by  J.  Knauth,  relating  his  personal  experience. 
He  imported  in  1853  from  Nassau  on  the  Rhine,  in  Germany,  fifteen  varieties 
of  grape-vine  cuttings.  These  were  first  planted  in  his  garden  near  Sutter's 
Fort.  "They  flourished  splendidly,  and  were  largely  propagated  while  show- 
ing not  a  single  trace  of  any  sort  of  disease."  In  1859-60  he  established  the 
Orleans  Hills  Vineyard  in  Cache  Creek  Canon,  using  for  that  purpose  only  the 
vines  dug  up  from  his  garden.  He  goes  on  to  say  that  sometime  later  some 
of  the  vines  in  less  favorable  soil  of  the  vineyard  began  to  die;  he  also 
states  that  some  Zinfandel  vines  obtained  from  Napa,  where  an  early  infesta- 
tion of  phylloxera  existed,  were  planted  in  the  same  vineyard  and  does  not 
clearly  establish  the  fact  whether  the  vines  showed  signs  of  disease  before 
this  planting  or  not.  One  thing  is  certain,  the  vine  cuttings  from  Germany 
did  not  introduce  the  disease,  and  infestation  was  brought  about  by  some 
cause  within  the  State. 

In  the  same  report,  the  report  of  G.  G.  Blanchard,  dated  Placerville, 
December  18,  1880,  gives  us  an  insight  as  to  what  extent  American  varieties 
of  grapes  were  grown  in  California.  "In  El  Dorado  County  there  are  between 


iCal.  Vit.  Comm.  An.  Rep.  1,  1881,  Appendix  C,  An.  Rep.  No.  1,  1881, 
H.  Appleton. 


186  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

eleven  and  twelve  hundred  acres  now  in  bearing  vines The  proportions 

and  kinds  growing,  taking  one  hundred  as  the  sum  are  as  follows:  Mission, 
sixty-eight;  Catawba  and  Isabella,  ten;  White  Muscat,  Muscatella,  Malaga, 
six;  Tokay,  Black  Morocco,  Malvoisies,  one;  Zinfandel,  Riesling,  two.  The 
other  thirteen  are  made  up  of  numerous  other  varieties,  such  as  Sweet  Water, 
Black  July,  Hartford  Prolific,  Cloantha  and  Concord  and  some  others."  .... 
"The  varieties  of  vines  raised  in  Amador  County,  Calaveras  County,  Tuolumne 
County  and  Mariposa  County  are  about  the  same  as  in  El  Dorado  County." 
almost  one-quarter  of'  the  vines  grown  in  these  counties  are  American 
varieties.  Another  of  his  statements  gives  an  idea  of  the  time  these  vines 
have  been  grown:  "Very  few  vines  have  been  planted  in  El  Dorado  County 
for  the  past  five  years." 

Considering  the  statements  made  in  these  reports,  at  a  time  when 
European  importations  were  of  more  consequence  than  any  from  the 
Eastern  States,  and  comparing  dates  therein  mentioned  with  the  date  18632 
when  the  very  first  traces  of  a  disease,  then  unknown  to  be  caused  by  the 
phylloxera,  even  making  allowance  for  the  presence  of  the  insect  a  few  years 
prior  to  its  injury  to  the  vines  being  noticed,  there  still  remains  a  probability 
in  favor  of  the  insect  being  introduced  from  the  Eastern  States.  This  is 
still  more  emphasized  by  the  fact  that  at  the  time  of  the  early  importations 
from  Europe,  cuttings  were  almost  exclusively  used  for  shipments,  while 
those  from  the  East  were  more  often  rooted  vines,  many  having  been  brought 
to  California  by  the  women  folk  of  the  homeseekers  leaving  a  home  in  the 
East  for  one  in  the  Far  West.  The  danger  of  introducing  the  pest  by  means 
of  Vinifera  cuttings  compared  to  rooted  American  vines  is  very  small. 

Damage  Done  to  the  State  of  California. 

Prof.  George  C.  Husmann,  Pomologist  in  charge  of  Vitricultural  Investi- 
gations, Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
places  the  damage  at  an  estimate  of  seventy-five  thousand  acres  of  vineyards 
destroyed  by  phylloxera  in  California.  Prof.  F.  T.  Bioletti,  head  of  the 
Viticultural  Department  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of 
California,  considers  these  figures  about  right,  while  Charles  C.  Wetmore, 
for  many  years  identified  with  the  Board  of  State  Viticultural  Commissioners, 
considers  them  as  conservative.  Placing  an  average  valuation  of  an  acre  of 
vineyard  at  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  the  loss  sustained  amounts  to 
about  nineteen  million  dollars  (less  the  value  of  the  land). 


2Cours  complet  de  Viticulture,  G.  Foex,  p.  549. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  187 


THE   GRAPE   ROOT   WORM. 

By  F.  Z.  HARTZELL, 
Vineyard  Laboratory,  Fredonia,  New  York. 


The  grape  root-worm  (Fidia  viticida,  Walsh)  is  a  serious  pest  to  grapes 
in  several  of  the  important  grape  regions  of  the  northeastern  United  States. 
Although  this  insect  has  been  known  to  science  for  more  than  forty  years, 
it  has  been  found  to  be  especially  destructive  only  during  the  past  twenty 
years.  The  facts  presented  in  this  paper  were  observed  at  or  near  Fredonia, 
New  York,  which  is  in  the  Lake  Erie  Valley  and  about  in  the  geographical 
center  of  the  Chautauqua  and  Erie  grape  belt.  This  region  extends  from 
Erie,  Pennsylvania,  to  near  the  suburbs  of  Buffalo,  New  York  (80  miles)  and 
ranges  from  three  to  ten  miles  in  width.  About  50,000  acres  of  Concord 
grapes  are  grown  in  this  locality.  It,  therefore,  can  not  be  expected  that  such 
details  as  the  time  of  emergence  of  adults,  egg  laying,  hatching,  etc.,  will  be 
exact  for  other  portions  of  the  country  where  this  insect  is  found  but  where 
temperature  and  humidity  conditions  differ  from  those  normally  occuring 
where  the  investigations  have  been  made.  Inasmuch  as  the  importance  and 
distribution  of  this  pest  will  be  presented  at  this  meeting  in  another  paper, 
we  will  hasten  to  other  phases  of  the  insect. 


History. 

B.  D.  Walshi  described  this  species  and  gave  us  the  first  account  of  its 
injury.  The  insect  has  appeared  in  literature  for  nearly  a  century  under 
other  names.  The  life  history  of  the  insect  was  first  described  by  Prof.  F.  M. 
Webster,2  who  found  it  injuring  grapes  in  Ohio.  Additional  facts  regarding 
its  habits  and  methods  of  control  were  given  by  Prof.  M.  V.  SHngerland'*  of 
Cornell  University,  and  Dr.  E.  P.  FelM  State  Entomologist  of  New  York, 
both  of  whom  made  a  number  of  experiments  in  Chautauqua  County.  The 
most  recent  and  extensive  work  on  the  life  history  of  the  root-worm  and  the 
methods  for  its  control  has  been  done  at  North  East,  Pennsylvania,  by  Fred 
Johnson  and  A.  G.  Hammer.5  The  insect  has  been  mentioned  in  the  writings 
of  many  other  entomologists,  but  the  foregoing  references  to  literature  deal 
with  the  more  important  contributions  to  the  life  history  and  methods  of 
control. 


i  Walsh,  B.  D.,  Pract.  Ent.  2:87-88.     1866. 

z  Webster,  F.  M.,  Cine.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.  17:159-169.     1894.     Ohio  Agri.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  No.  62.     1895. 

3  Slingerland,  M.  V.,  Cornell  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  184:21-32.     1900.     Slin- 
gerland,  M.  V.,  and  Craig,  J.  Cornell  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  208.     1902.     Slinger- 
land, M.  V.,  and  Johnson,  F.,  Cornell  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  224.     1904. 

4  Felt,  E.  P.,  N.  Y.  State  Mus.  Bui.  53.     1902.     N.  Y.  State  Mus.  Bui.  59. 
1902.     N.  Y.  State  Mus.  Bui.  72.     1903. 

5  Johnson.  F.,  and  Hammar,  A.  G.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  Ent.  Bui.  89. 
1910. 


188 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Origin  and  Food  Plants. 

The  grape  root-worm  is  an  American  insect  and,  no  doubt,  its  original 
food  plants  were  the  various  species  of  wild  grapes  indigenous  to  its  range. 
It  frequently  feeds  on  wild  species  at  the  present  time  but  shows  a  decided 
preference  for  the  Concord  variety  of  cultivated  grapes.  Although  no  variety 
has  been  found  that  is  entirely  immune  to  its  ravages,  Clinton  and  Delaware 
grapes  do  not  appear  to  be  attractive  to  the  beetle.  The  writer  has  never 
seen  a  vineyard  of  either  variety  seriously  infested  by  this  insect  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  such  vineyards  were  adjoining  or  even  surrounded  by 
Concord  vineyards  having  the  root-worm  present  in  considerable  numbers. 

The  question  of  the  degree  of  immunity  of  varieties  is  one  of  both 
theoretical  and  practical  interest  and  here  an  interesting  field  awaits  in- 
vestigation. Inasmuch  as  the  control  of  the  grape  root-worm  is  combined 
with  spraying  for  other  insects  and  fungus  diseases  it  is  doubtful  whether  it 
would  pay  to  graft  Concords  on  stock  which  is  largely  immune  to  the  attacks 
of  this  insect.  If  this  would  produce  other  advantages,  such  as  increased 
vigor,  then  grafting  of  roots  might  prove  practical. 


Character  and   Extent  of  Injury. 

The  adult  beetles  feed  on  the  leaves  of  grapes  eating  chain-like  areas  on 
the  upper  surfaces.  The  insect  grasps  a  portion  of  the  leaf  with  its 
mandibles  and  then  lifts  its  head  thus  tearing  the  tissue  which  it  proceeds 
to  devour.  A  slight  advance  is  made  and  another  portion  of  the  leaf  is  torn 


Fig.  1.     Effect  on  leaf  of  feeding  adults  (slightly  reduced). 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


189 


out.  If  a  number  of  pieces  are  torn  out  a  chain-like  appearance  is  presented 
on  the  upper  surface.  The  feeding  on  thick  leafed  varieties  usually  extends, 
in  depth,  only  to  the  small  veins  near  the  under  surface  thus  leaving  a  net- 
work of  veins  exposed  but  as  the  leaves  grow  older  these  veins  die  and  fall 
out  thus  leaving  an  irregular  chain-like  hole.  If  the  beetles  are  very  numer- 
ous individual  leaves  may  have  the  tissue  eaten  so  that  only  shreds  remain, 
but  it  is  very  seldom  that  sufficient  feeding  occurs  on  the  foliage  of  a  vine  to 
cause  injury.  The  writer  recalls  only  one  such  instance.  In  this  case  a  vine- 
yard of  three  acres  had  the  foliage  seriously  injured.  It  happened  that  the 
owner  had  had  an  adjoining  vineyard  so  severely  infested  by  the  larvae  that 
the  vines  were  badly  injured  and  this  vineyard  was  pulled  out  in  May.  As 
the  larvae  had  completed  feeding  this  did  not  effect  their  development  and 
after  emergence  the  adults  concentrated  on  the  nearest  vineyard. 


Fig.  2.     Effect  on  roots  of  severe  attack  of  larvae  (reduced). 


The  greatest  damage  by  Fidia  viticida  is  caused  by  the  larvae,  or,  so- 
called  root-worms,  feeding  on  the  roots  of  the  grapes.  The  young  larvae  feed 
first  upon  the  small  fibrous  roots  usually  eating  the  bark  but  as  the  grubs 
increase  in  size  they  gnaw  through  the  small  rootlets  and  channel  the  bark 
of  the  larger  roots,  often  girdling  them.  This  destruction  of  the  root  surface 
decreases  the  water  and  food  absorption  of  the  plant  thus  weakening  the 
same.  These  channeled  roots  with  a  scarcity  of  fibrous  roots  is  the  first 
sign  that  a  grower  should  seek  in  a  diagnosis  of  the  cause  of  weakened 
vines  and  the  presence  of  these  characters  would  indicate  some  species  of 
grape  root-worm.  There  are  several  species  of  root-worm  attacking  grapes 
in  the  United  States  and  the  correct  determination  of  the  species  must  be 


190 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


left  to  the  specialist.  However,  the  life  histories  of  the  several  species  are 
similar  so  the  remedial  measures  given  for  F.  viticida  will  answer  for  the 
control  of  the  other  species.  The  weakening  of  the  vines  is  the  most  usual 
effect  of  root-worm  injury  and  while  this  may  not  always  lead  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  vines,  nevertheless  they  may  be  so  weakened  as  to  produce  grapes 
at  a  loss. 

During  periods  of  severe  infestation  many  vines  are  killed,  sometimes 
whole  vineyards  being  practically  destroyed,  but  this  effect  is  limited  to  times 
of  greatest  abundance  of  the  insects  and  is  only  the  exceptional  effect  during 
ordinary  years. 


Fig.  3.     Adult  (enlarged  four  times). 
Eggs  (enlarged  four  times). 


Fig.  4.     (a)  Larva  (enlarged  six  times), 
(b)  Pupa  (slightly  enlarged). 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  191 

Description. 

Egg.  The  eggs  of  the  grape  root-worm  are  small,  glossy,  semi-trans- 
lucent, yellow  bodies.  The  means  of  416  eggs  were  1.05  mm.  (.041  inch) 
in  length  and  .315  mm.  (.012  inch)  in  diameter.  They  are  cylindrical  in  form 
with  the  ends  hemispherical.  The  stresses  produced  by  the  bark,  under 
which  they  are  laid,  generally  cause  the  major  axis  of  the  egg  to  be  more  or 
less  curved. 

Larva.  When  full  grown  the  larvae  vary  in  length  being  8  to  10  mm. 
(.3  to  .4  inch).  They  resemble  somewhat  the  common  white  grub  but  are 
much  broader  in  proportion  to  their  length.  The  spiracles  are  brown, 
nine  being  visible  on  each  side  of  the  body.  The  head  and  thoracic  shield 
are  yellowish-brown. 

Pupa.  The  pupae  are  slightly  shorter  than  the  larvae  and  are  cream 
colored.  Hooklike  processes  are  found  on  the  distal  ends  of  the  femora  and 
the  posterior  parts  of  the  body.  A  number  of  hairs  and  setae  are  found  on 
the  body,  those  on  the  head  and  posterior  parts  of  the  body  serving  to  sup- 
port the  pupa  in  its  cell. 

Adult.  The  adult  beetle  is  about  6  mm.  (.25  inch)  in  length  and  all  por- 
tions of  the  body  have  a  nearly  uniform  brown  chitin  which  is  densely 
covered  with  short  gray  hairs.  The  usual  color  of  the  adults  is  gray, 
due  to  the  abundance  of  hair.  There  is  considerable  variation  in  individuals 
as  regards  color,  some  specimens  having  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  and 
elytra  brown  caused,  in  some  instances,  by  the  shortness  of  this  hair,  in 
others,  by  the  lack  of  hair.  It  seems  that  the  activities  of  some  individuals 
rub  off  many  of  these  hairs  on  the  back  but  all  individuals  have  the  under 
sides  of  their  bodies  covered  with  gray  hairs.  This  is  nature's  way  of  pro- 
tecting them  from  their  enemies  for  when  the  beetles  drop  to  the  ground 
and  lie  motionless  this  color  causes  them  to  resemble  the  soil  and  thus  they 
escape  being  seen  by  their  enemies.  The  pits  bearing  the  hair  are  not 
arranged  in  any  definite  pattern  but  there  are  larger  pits  which  do  not  bear 
hair  and  these  are  arranged  in  rows  which  run  lengthwise  and  cause  the 
insects  to  have  a  finely  striated  appearance. 

The  clypeus  and  mandibles  are  shining  black  the  former  having  a  num- 
ber of  yellow  setae.  Each  Antenna  consists  of  eleven  segments  being 
a  light  brown  with  many  hairs  and  setae.  The  legs  are  brown  with  the 
tarsi  slightly  darker. 

Seasonal   History. 

Emergence.  During  a  normal  year,  the  beetles  emerge  the  latter  part  of 
June  and  the  early  part  of  July.  We  expect  to  find  the  first  adults  emerging 
near  the  25th  of  June,  on  gravel  soils,  but  the  majority  do  not  appear  until 
almost  a  week  later  and  certain  straggling  individuals  may  not  come  forth 
until  nearly  three  weeks  later.  The  time  will  be  a  week  to  ten  days  later 
on  the  heavier  soils.  The  adults  have  been  found  as  early  as  June  18th  and 
during  late  seasons  the  first  ones  were  not  found  on  gravel  soil  until  July 
5th.  The  occurrence  of  rains  may  influence  the  emergence  especially  on 
the  heavy  soils  where  the  ground  has  formed  a  hard  crust  for  here  the 
beetles  are  imprisoned  and  cannot  emerge  until  the  rain  loosens  the  soil 
sufficiently  for  them  to  dig  their  way  out. 


192  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Emphasis  has  been  placed  on  the  period  of  emergence  for  the  time  of 
spraying  is  dependent  upon  it.  This  phenomenon  together  with  the  time  the 
eggs  are  deposited  constitute  an  important  portion  of  the  seasonal  history  of 
the  grape  root-worm  so  far  as  remedial  measures  are  involved.  For  this 
reason  it  is  very  necessary  that  these  dates  be  accurately  determined  by 
grape  growers  themselves  for  they  differ  with  the  locality,  soil,  latitude  and 
humidity.  For  several  years  the  writer  has  made  an  effort  to  correlate  the 
time  of  emergence  with  well  marked  conditions  of  the  vine,  but  so  far  no 
condition,  that  is  constant  has  been  observed.  The  size  of  the  berries  and 
the  time  the  fruit  has  set  to  the  time  of  emergence  of  the  beetles  is  found 
to  be  variable,  depending  on  moisture  and  temperature.  Nothing  so  well 
defined  as  the  relation  between  the  time  of  spraying  for  the  codling  moth 
and  the  falling  of  the  petals  of  the  apple  has  been  found  for  grape  spraying. 
During  normal  years  sprayings  made  about  one  week  after  the  fruit  has  set 
have  been  found  to  be  very  effective  but  this  will  not  be  true  for  abnormal 
years.  Fortunately  the  feeding  of  the  beetles  is  so  conspicuous  that  grape 
growers  should  have  little  trouble  in  noting  the  time  of  emergence  sufficiently 
accurately  for  practical  purposes.  Growers  should  have  sprayers  and  ma- 
terials ready  for  immediate  use  by  the  time  the  fruit  has  set,  then  by  careful 
observation  the  exact  time  for  spraying  can  be  determined  and  the  material 
applied  when  it  will  be  most  effective. 

Feeding  habits.  The  adults  usually  do  not  begin  feeding  until  about  a 
day  after  emergence.  During  the  first  two  weeks  of  their  life  as  adult  they 
feed  ravenously  but  later  feed  much  less,  especially  after  dispersion  has 
taken  place.  The  adults  feed  only  during  portions  of  the  day,  remaining  in 
hiding  near  the  axils  of  the  shoots  much  of  the  time.  A  favorite  position  is 
in  the  axils  near  the  upper  wire  in  the  Chautauqua  system  of  training. 

Egg  deposition.  Shortly  after  mating  the  females  begin  to  deposit  eggs, 
these  eggs  are  placed  chiefly  under  the  loose  bark  of  the  canes  but  are 
found  on  all  the  woody  portions  of  the  vine  above  ground.  The  eggs  are 
tucked  away  between  the  living  bark  and  the  loose  or  corky  layers  which 
cover  the  vine.  Seldom  do  we  find  eggs  laid  in  exposed  situations  either  on 
the  foliage  or  on  the  wood.  The  number  deposited  in  a  cluster  varies  greatly. 
In  1914  the  numbers  of  eggs  in  164  clusters  were  counted  and  the  range  was 
found  to  be  from  1  to  66  with  a  mean  of  24. 

The  eggs  hatch  in  about  two  weeks  after  being  deposited  although  this 
time  varies  greatly  because  of  differences  in  temperature. 

Larva.  The  small  larva  after  hatching  crawls  about  on  the  bark  and 
soon  drops  to  the  ground  where  it  immediately  burrows  into  the  soil.  It 
works  its  way  to  the  roots  of  the  vine  on  which  it  feeds.  It  grows  rapidly 
and  often  reaches  full  size  by  November.  If  it  does  not  attain  its  full  growth 
by  that  time  it  usually  does  so  the  following  spring.  In  several  instances 
Johnson  and  Hammar  found  that  the  larvae  lived  until  the  second  summer 
before  changing  to  pupae. 

The  latter  part  of  October,  the  larvae  burrow  into  the  soil  to  the  depth 
of  about  a  foot  or  even  eighteen  inches  where  they  form  cells  and  thus  pass 
the  winter.  Early  in  May  they  leave  these  larval  hibernating  chambers  and 
return  to  the  roots  where  they  feed  a  short  time  and  change  to  pupae  the 
early  part  of  June.  The  normal  larval  stage  is  about  ten  months. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  193 

Pupa.  The  larvae,  when  ready  to  pupate,  burrow  to  a  depth  of  several 
inches  and  twist  their  bodies  about  to  form  spherical  cells  in  which  to  trans- 
form to  pupae.  The  depth  of  these  cells  is  largely  influenced  by  moisture 
although  there  is  individual  variation  in  the  same  soil.  The  first  of  these 
pupae  are  usually  found  between  June  5th  and  10th.  This  stage  lasts  for  a 
period  of  from  two  to  three  weeks  depending  upon  the  temperature  during 
the  period. 

Summary  of  the  Life  Cycle. 

The  life  cycle  of  the  grape  root-worm  is  usually  completed  in  one  year 
although  an  occasional  individual  may  require  two  years  to  complete  develop- 
ment. This  may  occur  because  the  food  supply  of  the  larva  has  not  been 
sufficient  for  its  needs.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  July  and  August.  These  hatch 
in  about  two  weeks  and  the  young  larvae,  upon  hatching,  seek  the  roots  and 
here  feed  until  fall  when  they  burrow  deeper,  form  winter  cells  and  thus 
hibernate.  They  leave  these  in  May  and  seldom  resume  feeding.  Early  in 
June  pupation  takes  place  and  the  adults  emerge  the  latter  part  of  June. 
Feeding  occurs  during  July  but  mating  takes  place  the  early  part  of  this 
month  and  egg  laying  is  in  progress  during  the  latter  part  of  July  and  early 
August,  although  a  few  eggs  may  be  laid  as  late  as  the  first  of  September. 
The  adults  begin  to  die  the  last  of  July  and  by  the  15th  of  August  very  few 
are  to  be  found.  Rarely  they  have  been  found  late  in  September. 


Remedial   Measures, 

Efforts  to  kill  the  grubs  before  they  enter  the  soil  or  after  entrance  are 
not  regarded  as  practical  owing  to  the  cost.  The  efforts  of  entomologists 
have  been  directed  toward  ridding  the  vineyard  of  the  adults  before  they 
have  had  an  opportunity  to  deposit  eggs  and  to  the  destruction  of  the  pupae. 
The  first  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  sprays  and  the  latter  by  cultivation 
of  the  soil  in  such  a  manner  as  to  destroy  the  pupae  through  the  breaking 
of  the  pupal  cells. 

Destruction  of  the  pupae.  In  New  York  vineyards  it  is  a  common  prac- 
tice to  form  a  low  ridge  underneath  the  trellises  at  the  last  cultivation  of 
the  summer.  This  ridge  is  removed,  usually  during  May,  after  the  plowing 
has  been  done  and  it  is  considered  good  horticultural  practice  to  remove  this 
early  thus  avoiding  the  loss  of  small  roots  that  might  form  here  were  the 
ridge  to  remain  longer.  However,  should  the  grape  root-worm  be  present  in 
serious  numbers,  the  advantage  of  leaving  this  ridge  undisturbed  until  the 
larvae  have  formed  their  cells  and  pupated  and  then  removing  it  seems  to 
be  largely  in  favor  of  this  latter  practice  for  the  deleterious  effects  to  the 
vine  as  regards  moisture  and  root  injury  is  more  than  compensated  by  the 
destruction  of  large  numbers  of  pupae.  The  average  date  for  this  practice 
is  June  10th  and  the  work  is  done  by  means  of  a  horse-hoe  followed  by  deep 
harrowing,  preferably  with  a  spring  tooth  harrow.  The  ridge  serves  as  a 
trap  for  the  insects  as  they  are  induced  to  place  their  cells  where  they  can 
be  reached  by  cultivation  whereas  if  the  ridge  be  torn  away  earlier  the  larvae 
would  form  their  cells  lower  and  among  the  roots  thus  preventing  their  dis- 
turbance. The  working  of  the  soil  breaks  the  cells  and  exposes  them  to  the 


194  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

air  and  sunlight  thus  destroying  them.  This  practice  will  not  kill  all  the 
pupae  owing  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  grubs  will  form  cells  too  low  for 
cultivation  to  reach  them.  Again  all  grubs  do  not  form  cells  at  the  same 
time  and  thus,  if  disturbed  before  the  cells  are  formed,  will  crawl  into  the 
soil  and  form  cells  lower  than  the  tools  penetrate. 

Destruction  of  the  Adults.  The  several  entomologists,  who  have  experi- 
mented on  the  control  of  this  species,  have  used  some  form  of  poison  as  the 
most  effective  method  of  killing  the  adults,  and  this  is  the  method  of  control 
that  is  generally  recommended. 

The  most  extensively  used  material  is  arsenate  of  lead  (6  Ibs.)  and 
Bordeaux  mixture  (8-8-100)  100  gallons.  It  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the 
first  beetles  appear,  using  not  less  than  100  gallons  per  acre.  Where  the 
foliage  is  dense  it  will  require  150  gallons  to  cover  an  acre  of  grapes  properly. 
A  second  spraying  should  be  applied  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  The  material 
just  mentioned  is  most  valuable  in  a  vineyard  where  the  foliage  is  not  very 
luxuriant  or  where  the  beetles  are  not  too  numerous.  In  vineyards  having 
excessive  numbers  of  these  insects,  especially  where  the  foliage  is  dense, 
better  results  are  secured  by  using  a  spray  consisting  of  arsenate  of  lead 
(6  Ibs.),  cheap  molasses  (1  gal.),  and  water  (100  gal.),  followed  in  one  week 
by  a  single  spraying  of  Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  pro- 
portions mentioned  above. 

The  use  of  the  sweetened  spray  by  the  writer  was  brought  about  through 
the  apparent  failure  of  grape  growers  to  combat  the  root-worm  by  means  of 
the  Bordeaux  mixture — arsenate  of  lead  spray.  All  workers  have  found  that 
there  is  considerable  variation,  especially  some  seasons,  in  the  effectiveness 
of  this  material.  This  may  have  been  the  result  of  improper  application  of 
the  material,  due  to  the  interference  of  wind  and  dense  foliage,  or  it  may 
have  been  due  to  manner  in  which  the  poison  was  made.  Our  experiments 
have  shown  that  this  material  is  distasteful  to  the  beetles  and  this  has 
changed  our  views  regarding  the  effect  produced  on  the  insects.  It  has 
usually  been  assumed  that  the  insects  are  poisoned  but  we  now  hold  the 
opinion  that  it  produces  a  repellent  action  on  them.  In  no  other  way  can  we 
account  for  dead  beetles  being  found  under  vines  where  molasses  and 
arsenate  of  lead  was  used  while  in  the  same  field  the  vines  sprayed  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  revealed  no  dead  insects  yet  the  vines 
were  cleared  of  beetles.  Cage  experiments  have  shown  that  this  latter 
material  is  distasteful  while  molasses  attracts  them. 

It  seems  that  too  much  dependence  has  been  placed  upon  the  idea  that  a 
spray  to  be  effective  must  eradicate  the  pest  in  a  single  season.  The  cumu- 
lative effect  of  Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  upon  the  infestation  is 
marked  when  spraying  is  continued  regularly  for  several  years.  Although 
this  mixture  may  not  give  as  decided  results  as  the  sweetened  spray  when 
used  for  one  season  only,  especially  where  the  beetles  are  numerous,  still  its 
use  in  the  same  vineyard  over  a  period  of  years  keeps  the  number  below  the 
danger  mark.  The  writer  has  seldom  found  a  vineyard  in  the  Chautauqua 
and  Erie  grape  belt  that  is  seriously  infested  with  chewing  insects  where 
two  thorough  applications  of  this  spray  have  been  properly  applied  for  a 
period  of  five  years. 

The  great  drawback  to  the  sweetened  spray  is  its  lack  of  adhesion.  If  it 
should  happen  to  be  applied  shortly  before  a  rain  it  will  be  ineffective  be 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  195 

cause  of  being  washed  upon  the  ground.  Careful  forecasting  of  the  weather 
is  necessary  if  best  results  are  to  be  attained,  but  under  the  proper  condi- 
tions, this  material  followed  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  poison  has  pro- 
duced the  best  results  of  any  tried  to  date. 

From  the  results  of  many  field  trials  and  observations  we  would  recom- 
mend that  when  a  vineyard  is  severely  infested  the  molasses  and  poison  be 
used  for  the  first  spraying  and  the  second  application  be  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  poison,  while  in  a  vineyard  having  a  moderate  infestation  two  applica- 
tions of  Bordeaux  mixture  and  poison  be  used. 

The  fungicidal  qualities  of  this  latter  spray  are  needed  in  most  New 
York  vineyards  and  at  least  one  application  should  be  made  whether  insects 
are  present  or  absent. 


THE  GRAPE  LEAF-HOPPER. 

By  F.  Z.  HARTZELL, 
Vineyard  Laboratory,  Fredonia,  New  York. 


The  most  common  insect  found  en  grape  vines  in  the  United  States  is  a 
small  insect  commonly,  but  wrongly,  called  "thrips"  in  many  localities.  This 
is  the  grape  leaf-hopper  and  a  number  of  species  are  found  on  cultivated 
grapes.  The  species  most  often  found  is  Typhlocyba  comes  Say  of  which 
there  are  nine  varieties.  Inasmuch  as  the  other  species  are  similar  to  this 
one  in  life  habits  and  destructiveness  and  also  because  this  species  has  been 
studied  by  entomologists  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  others,  this  paper  will 
be  confined  to  the  life  history,  habits,  destructiveness  and  control  of  Typhlo- 
cyba comes  Say  as  found  to  exist  in  the  Lake  Erie  Valley  and  throughout 
the  Empire  State.  Due  allowance  must  be  made  for  differences  which  exist 
regarding  dates  of  transformation,  etc.,  in  other  parts  of  its  range.  ' 

The  other  species  and  varieties  being  similar  in  habits  to  the  typical 
comes,  control  measures  adapted  to  the  latter  form  will  apply  to  the  other 
species  at  least  under  New  York  conditions.  Certain  varieties  of  grapes  are 
preferred  by  one  species  of  leaf-hopper  and  appear  to  be  avoided  by  others. 
Again,  several  species  may  infest  the  same  variety  in  a  region  but  this  is  not 
a  constant  habit,  for  Concords  in  one  locality  are  infested  by  T.  comes  in 
another  by  T.  tricincta  or  a  variety  of  T.  comes.  Since  a  detailed  discussion 
of  these  facts  would  lead  us  beyond  the  limits  assigned  to  this  paper  we  will 
confine  our  writing  to  the  life  history  of  T.  comes  and  especially  to  the 
factors  necessary  to  a  knowledge  of  the  proper  control  of  the  several  species 
of  leaf-hopper  found  in  the  northeastern  United  States. 

Food   Plants. 

Although  the  grape  leaf-hopper  feeds  on  the  foliage  of  the  grape  during 
practically  the  entire  period  that  this  is  present,  it  also  feeds  on  other  plants 
in  the  spring  before  the  grape  foliage  has  unfolded  and  during  the  fall  after 


196  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

these  leaves  have  dropped  from  the  vines.  These  insects  become  active  with 
the  first  warm  days  of  spring  and  feed  on  a  number  of  species  of  plants.  The 
most  important  are  raspberry,  blackberry,  strawberry,  burdock,  catnip,  Vir- 
ginia creeper,  currant  and  gooseberry  but  they  have  been  found  feeding  on 
the  foliage  of  beech,  sugar  maple  and  various  grasses  when  their  preferred 
food  plants  were  missing.  An  interesting  succession  of  plants  used  for  food 
in  the  spring  has  been  noted.  The  leaf-hopper  fed  on  burdock,  grasses  and 
wild  strawberry  until  the  foliage  of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry  had  ad- 
vanced sufficiently  for  the  young  leaves  to  shelter  the  insects  when  they  flew 
to  these  latter  plants,  preferring  the  raspberry  (both  red  and  black).  They 
remained  on  this  foliage  for  the  space  of  nearly  one  month  during  which  time 
mating  occurred.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  mention  that  when  these  insects 
are  numerous  they  severely  injure  the  leaves  of  cultivated  raspberries  dur- 
ing May.  By  the  latter  part  of  this  month  the  first  grape  leaves  have  grown 
to  a  diameter  of  about  two  inches  and  the  leaf-hoppers  migrate  to  them. 
Here  they  remain  during  June,  lay  their  eggs  and,  later,  die.  The  young 
hatching  from  the  eggs  feed  and  develop  on  these  leaves  and  remain  on  them 
until  they  drop  in  the  fall.  Feeding  during  the  warm  days  of  autumn  is 
confined  largely  to  the  leaves  of  the  strawberry  and  various  grasses  but  they 
feed  on  a  number  of  other  plants  if  these  are  present. 

Character  and   Extent  of  Injury. 

The  grape  leaf-hopper  is  a  sucking  insect  and  obtains  its  food  by  piercing 
the  tissues  of  the  leaf  and  sucking  the  sap.  The  loss  of  sap  would  not  inter- 
fere with  the  economy  of  the  vines  but  since  a  small  area  of  the  leaf  dies 
about  each  puncture,  caused  by  the  drying  of  the  injured  area,  the  presence 
of  many  of  these  punctures  interferes  with  the  ability  of  the  leaf  to  perform 
its  functions.  An  average  sized  leaf  after  being  seriously  infested  until  the 
latter  part  of  July  was  found  to  have  about  20,000  such  dead  areas.  Such 
leaves  have  a  yellow  appearance,  do  not  produce  starch  sufficient  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  vine  and,  as  a  consequence,  infested  vines  do  not  develop  the 
required  amount  of  wood,  nor  ripen  the  same,  and  the  amount  of  fruit  pro- 
duced is,  in  time,  considerably  reduced.  The  decrease  in  amount  of  fruit  is 
greater  the  season  following  the  infestation.  By  far  the  most  serious  injury 
is  caused  by  the  failure  of  infested  vines  to  properly  mature  their  fruit. 
Fruit  from  such  vines  is  deficient  in  sugar  and  flavor  and  also  contains  more 
acid  than  is  found  in  well  ripened  grapes.  Grapes  from  vineyards  infested 
with  leaf-hoppers  will  not  be  used  by  the  manufactures  of  the  better  grades 
of  grape  juice  nor  are  they  suitable  for  use  on  the  table  or  the  making  of 
wines.  They  can  be  used  to  advantage,  however,  in  the  making  of  jellies 
but  as  this  industry  is  only  in  its  infancy  very  few  grapes  are  used  for  this 
purpose. 

The  actual  loss  to  grape  growers  from  this  insect  is  difficult  to  esti- 
mate. During  years  of  ordinary  infestation  the  damage  caused  in  New 
York  state  is  not  great;  in  fact  in  many  regions  it  is  not  sufficient  to  war- 
rant spraying  to  control  the  pest.  It  is  during  periods  of  abundance  of 
these  insects  that  vineyards  suffer  and  at  such  times  the  injury  is  sufficient 
to  cause  loss.  We  estimate  that  this  seldom  exceeds  $60.00  per  acre  for 
two  seasons,  and  that  the  injury  in  infested  vineyards  averages  about  $20.00 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  197 

per  acre.  It  is  necessary  to  include  two  seasons'  crops  in  this  estimate 
for  these  insects  usually  injure  the  quality  the  first  season  but  the  effect 
on  the  quantity  does  not  appear  until  the  second  season.  Only  two  serious 
outbreaks  have  occurred  in  Chautauqua  County,  New  York.  And  each 
of  these  extended  over  but  a  few  seasons.  For  this  reason  the  average 
annual  loss  is  rather  small.  In  other  sections  of  the  state,  the  annual 
losses  from  this  pest  are  greater  because  the  outbreaks  appear  to  occur 
at  more  frequent  intervals.  The  reasons  for  this  latter  condition  are:  (I) 
the  environment  is  favorable  for  hibernating;  (2)  in  some  sections,  vine- 
yards are  grown  in  proximity  to  raspberry  plantings  which  we  have 
learned  affords  the  leaf-hoppers  both  suitable  hibernating  quarters  and 
(more  important)  food  before  the  leaves  of  the  grape  appear. 


Factors    Favoring    Injury   to   Vineyards. 

A  study  of  the  ecology  of  this  insect  has  revealed  the  reasons  for  the 
variation  in  infestation  found  in  a  locality  during  the  same  season  and  may 
explain  the  causes  for  the  greater  infestation  found  in  certain  regions.  The 
most  severe  infestation  of  vineyards  have  always  been  found  where  they 
adjoined  land  having  favorable  conditions  for  hibernation  of  the  leaf- 
hopper  or  spring  food  plants  of  which  raspberry  and  blackberry  plantings 
seem  to  be  preferred.  The  locations  favorable  for  winter  quarters  are 
dead  grass,  that  has  lodged,  and  leaves,  especially  those  of  deciduous  trees 
which  are  resistant  to  moisture  and  to  becoming  tightly  packed  by  snow. 
For  this  reason  fences,  brush  land,  waste  places  grown  up  with  grass,  hay 
fields,  when  the  second  crop  has  been  allowed  to  lodge,  and  other  places 
in  which  such  rubbish  might  gather  were  always  found  to  shelter  many 
of  the  hibernating  adults.  During  the  warm  days  of  autumn  myriads  of 
leaf-hoppers  fly  about  and  travel  short  distances  alighting  in  every  place 
they  chance  to  find.  Should  they  find  conditions  for  winter  quarters  unsuit- 
able they  leave  them  and  drift  about  until  suitable  places  are  found.  The 
first  warm  days  of  spring  cause  them  to  leave  their  winter  quarters  and 
seek  food.  We  again  find  them  on  the  wing  at  times  and  as  soon  as  rasp- 
berries are  found  begin  feeding  on  these.  However  all  leaf-hoppers  do  not 
migrate  to  berry  leaves  but  many  continue  to  feed  on  grass  and  weeds 
which  may  be  present,  migrating  to  the  grape  leaves  as  soon  as  these  have 
grown  to  be  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter.  Weedy  vineyards  also  make 
excellent  places  for  these  insects.  Plants  which  remain  green  during  the 
winter,  such  as  the  several  cover  crops,  do  not  shelter  these  pests  to  any 
extent  although  a  few  of  the  insects  may  remain  and  feed  on  them.  Plant- 
ings which  are  sown  to  cover  crops,  which  remain  green  during  the  winter, 
or  which  are  kept  free  from  weeds  and  rubbish  and  have  clear  surroundings 
are  not  severely  attacked  by  these  bugs.  The  practice  of  clean  culture 
has  given  the  eastern  vineyardists  a  powerful  weapon  of  defense  against 
the  enemy.  The  writer  studied  the  distribution  of  these  insects  in  Chau- 
tauqua County  during  the  severe  infestation  of  1912  and  at  that  time  few 
infested  vineyards  were  found  on  the  heavier  soils.  All  observations  indi- 
cate that  either  the  leaf-hopper  seeks  dry  situations  in  which  to  hibernate 
or  the  individuals  which  go  into  winter  quarters  on  the  lower  soils  die 
through  flooding  of  these  places  or  on  account  of  the  continual  dampness. 


198  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

True  one  can  find  individuals  on  grapes  on  all  soils  but  not  in  the  same 
amount  as  on  the  lighter  soils. 

Description. 

Eggs.  The  eggs  are  partially  transparent,  slightly  curved  or  bean 
shaped  and  are  between  .7  mm  and  .8  mm  (about  .03  inch)  in  length  and 
from  .2  mm  to  .3  mm  (about  .01)  in  diameter. 

Nymph.  The  young  leaf-hoppers  resemble  the  adults  in  general  shape 
but  lack  wings.  In  the  place  of  the  latter  we  find  thickened  areas  which 
are  the  developing  wings,  also  called  wing  pads.  These  increase  in  size 
with  each  moult  disproportionately  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  These 
nympths  are  yellowish-white  in  color  with  red  eyes  during  the  first  instar. 
They  pass  through  five  stages  or  instars  and  at  the  last  moult  upon  chang- 
ing to  adults  the  wings  unfold.  The  eyes  change  to  yellow  in  the  second 
instar. 

Adult.  The  adult  insects  have  a  general  color  of  yellow  and  are  vari- 
ously marked  with  darker  yellow  or  salmon  irregular  areas.  Several  black 
spots  are  found  on  the  wings.  The  variation  in  color  and  shape  of  the 
colored  areas  and  spots  is  so  great  that  nine  species  have  been  described 
but  these  are  now  regarded  as  varieties  of  Typhlocyba  comes.  The  black 
spots  remain  constant  but  the  irregular  areas  change  in  color  from  yellow 
to  salmon  while  individuals  having  areas  of  light  red  have  been  found. 
These  variations  in  color  vary  with  the  season.  The  typical  color  during 
early  summer  while  the  insects  are  feeding  on  grape  foliage  is  yellow,  but 
during  late  summer  and  autumn  they  change  to  a  salmon  and  often  to  a 
red.  This  darker  phase  is  found  in  the  those  hibernating  and  also  while 
they  are  feeding  in  the  spring,  but  as  soon  as  feeding  is  resumed  on  the 
grape  the  color  changes  to  a  light  yellow.  The  typical  comes  is  the  com- 
mon variety  on  Concord  vines  in  Chautauqua  County,  New  York.  Although 
a  number  of  the  variety  octonotata  are  also  found. 

Seasonal    History. 

The  eggs  hatch  during  the  latter  part  of  June  and  July  of  a  normal 
season  although  they  have  been  observed  hatching  during  early  August. 
The  nymphs  feed  by  sucking  the  sap  from  the  leaf,  practically  all  feeding 
being  done  on  the  underside.  They  require  from  three  to  five  weeks  to 
reach  maturity  depending  upon  temperature.  The  majority  of  these  nymphs 
change  to  adults  from  July  10th  to  July  25th  of  a  normal  year  but  nymphs 
of  the  first  brood  are  often  found  during  early  August.  If  weather  condi- 
tions are  such  that  a  second  brood  is  not  produced,  the  adults  appearing 
in  July  and  August  continue  to  feed  on  the  grape  foliage  until  the  fruit 
is  harvested  and  the  leaves  begin  to  fall.  We  then  find  them  dispersing 
to  other  food  plants  but  especially  to  locations  where  rubbish  and  leaves 
have  been  collected  by  the  wind  and  where  they  remain  during  the  winter. 
They  are  active  on  the  warm  days  of  autumn  but  during  cooler  weather 
remain  quiet  in  their  shelter.  With  the  warm  spring  days  we  find  them 
resuming  feeding  on  the  plants  previously  mentioned.  The  adults  mate 
during  May  and  early  June.  The  males  die  before  the  females,  few  of  the 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  199 

former  being  found  after  June  15th.  The  females  die  during  the  latter 
part  of  June  and  July. 

A  second-brood  of  leaf-hoppers  is  produced  during  hot,  dry  seasons 
and  usually  a  partial  second  brood  during  a  normal  season.  Eggs  are  laid 
by  the  earliest  developing  adults  during  August  and  perhaps  September 
for  young  nymphs  of  the  first  instar  have  been  found  as  late  as  October 
1st.  Most  of  the  nymphs  of  this  brood  develop  into  adults  during  late 
September  and  early  October  but  it  is  believed  that  many  of  the  nymphs 
never  develop  into  adults  owing  to  their  late  appearance  unless  they  reach 
maturity  on  other  plants.  Nymphs  have  never  been  observed  hibernating. 

The  length  of  life  of  the  single  brood  insect  is  about  one  year  but  the 
length  of  life  of  the  adults  during  years  having  a  second  brood  has  not 
been  determined. 

Natural    Control. 

All  entomologists  who  have  studied  this  insect  have  noted  great  reduc- 
tions in  the  number  of  leaf-hoppers  infesting  vineyards  but  the  exact  causes 
of  these  diminutions  in  numbers  are  not  known.  Climatic  conditions 
appear,  however,  to  be  an  important  factor. 

The  serious  outbreak  of  1911  and  1912  terminated  rather  suddenly 
during  the  late  summer  of  the  latter  year  and  abnormal  weather — low 
temperatures  and  excess  of  rain — is  believed  to  have  been  the  cause.  The 
nymphs  did  not  seem  to  thrive  so  that  few  reached  maturity.  A  worker 
has  reported  that  high  temperatures  kill  the  insect  but  this  has  not  been 
the  cause  in  New  York  vineyards. 

Predaceous  and  parasitic  enemies  exact  their  toll  but  careful  observa- 
tions indicate  that  these  play  only  a  small  part  in  the  reduction  of  the  pest. 
After  a  study  of  the  literature  and  personal  observations  made  during  a 
period  of  decided  decrease,  the  writer  must  acknowledge  that  we  are 
ignorant  of  causes  of  natural  control  of  these  insects. 

Remedial    Measures. 

Under  conditions  obtaining  in  the  northeastern  United  States  it  ap- 
pears that  several  methods  of  control  are  practical.  The  following  have 
been  noted  or  used  by  the  writer:  (1)  destruction  of  hibernating  places 
either  by  clean  culture  during  the  summer  or  by  burning  over  such  places 
during  the  fall  or  winter;  (2)  avoiding  the  planting  of  bush  fruits  close  to 
vineyards;  (3)  the  allowing  of  the  shoots  or  "suckers"  to  remain  at  the 
base  of  the  vines  until  early  July;  (4)  spraying  with  nicotine  mixture  to 
kill  the  nymphs. 

Destruction  of  hibernating  quarters.  Any  practice  which  will  keep 
vineyards  and  especially  the  land  surrounding  the  same  clear  of  weeds 
and  grass  will  prevent  the  leaf-hopper  from  hibernating  near  the  vines  and 
this  has  been  found  to  keep  the  vineyards  free  from  serious  infestation. 
If  the  surroundings  have  grown  up  to  grass  which  has  died  and  lodged 
especially  if  leaves  have  been  gathered  here  by  the  wind,  the  most  practi- 
cal measure  usually  is  to  spray  these  with  kerosene  if  they  will  not  burn 
readily  and  destroy  these  refuges  by  means  of  fire.  This  method  was  used 
by  several  grape  growers  with  success  during  the  1911-1912  infestation. 


200  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

Keeping  bush  fruits  some  distance  from  vineyards.  Along  the  Hudson 
river  it  is  customary  to  interplant  grapes  with  raspberries  and  such  vine- 
yards are  seriously  infested  practically  every  year.  In  other  sections 
grape  growers  often  plant  raspberries  in  close  proximity  to  vineyards  and 
the  vines  near  such  plantings  are  often  seriously  infested.  Since  we  have 
found  that  the  raspberry  is  an  important  spring  food  of  the  leaf-hopper 
the  reason  for  this  is  obvious.  Whenever  possible  these  two  fruit  plants 
should  not  be  planted  near  each  other. 

Retardation  of  suckering.  A  common  vineyard  practice  is  to  remove 
the  shoots  which  grow  near  the  base  of  the  vines.  This  is  usually  done 
during  June — a  logical  time  ordinarily.  However,  during  periods  of  attack 
by  the  leaf-hopper,  it  is  better  to  allow  these  shoots  to  remain  until  early 
July.  The  adults  dislike  to  be  disturbed  and  to  avoid  this  seek  the  lowest 
foliage  on  the  vines  and  here  lay  their  eggs.  When  this  is  defiled  by 
excrement  and  feeding  they  seek  the  leaves  higher  on  the  vine.  Usually 
this  movement  to  the  higher  foliage  occurs  late  in  June  if  the  suckers  are 
allowed  to  remain,  but  if  these  are  removed  early  in  June,  the  insects  injure 
the  foliage  which  is  to  remain  all  summer.  By  allowing  these  suckers  to 
remain  until  the  first  week  of  July  and  then  removing  them  the  more 
permanent  foliage  is  saved  from  injury  and  any  nymphs  and  eggs  are 
destroyed  by  the  dying  of  the  foliage  after  being  removed. 

Spraying  to  kill  the  nymphs.  No  spraying  operations  that  have  been 
tried  have  proven  practical  against  the  adults  but  the  use  of  contact 
insecticides  to  kill  the  nymphs  has  been  recommended  for  a  number  of 
years.  From  the  standpoint  of  safety  to  foliage,  cost  of  material  and 
effectiveness  nothing  has  been  found  better  than  nicotine  sulphate  diluted 
so  that  .02  of  one  per  cent  of  the  material  is  present  in  the  spray  solution. 
Commercial  nicotine  sulphate  usually  contains  40  per  cent  nicotine  and  at 
this  strength  only  one-half  pint  is  required  to  each  100  gallons  of  spray 
material. 

The  question  of  application  is  very  important  for  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  hit  the  bodies  of  the  nymphs  with  the  spray  material  to  be  effective. 
A  common  method  of  application  is  by  means  of  trailing  hose  having  a 
short  extension  rod  with  nozzles  set  at  right  angles  attached  to  a  power 
sprayer.  This  method  requires  three  men — one  to  drive  and  two  to  handle 
the  nozzles.  It  is  a  very  effective  method  and  in  vineyards  planted  on 
steep  slopes  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  used.  The  cost  of  application  by 
this  method  as  well  as  the  disagreeable  effect  of  the  material  on  the 
operators,  has  led  to  the  development  of  several  types  of  machines  which 
can  be  used,  in  level  vineyards,  to  deliver  the  spray  against  the  underside 
of  the  foliage.  Space  forbids  our  discussion  of  these  at  this  time  but 
anyone  interested  in  them  can  secure  illustrations  and  descriptions  of  the 
same  in  Bulletin  No.  19  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  Bulletin  No.  244  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

In  order  that  spraying  to  control  the  grape  leaf-hopper  be  effective, 
the  men  operating  the  apparatus  must  use  care  and  be  thorough  in  every 
detail  of  the  operation. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  201 

The  use  of  sticky  shields  to  capture  the  adults  has  not  proven  as 
practical  in  eastern  vineyards  as  the  several  methods  of  control  just 
described. 


This  paper  was  followed  by  a  discussion,  lead  by  President  Alwood, 
on  remedial  and  preventative  measures  regarding  the  grape  leaf-hopper, 
Mr.  W.  T.  Stevenson,  of  Elk  Grove,  Cal.,  and  Mr.  Frank  T.  Swett,  of  Mar- 
tinez, gave  their  experiences  with  the  use  of  atomic  sulphur. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Roberts,  Agricultural  Expert  with  the  Santa  Fe  System.  "I 
use  a  nicotine  mixture  together  with  atomic  sulphur  in  the  control  of  the 
nymphs.  There  are  very  few  vine  hoppers  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
this  year.  When  the  nymphs  are  young,  atomic  sulphur  alone  is  sufficient 
to  control,  and  later  on  nicotine  and  water,  together  with  whale  oil  soap  as 
a  spreader,  will  give  control.  The  nicotine  will  give  you  a  90  per  cent  kill. 
The  cost  per  acre  runs  from  $2.50  to  $4.00,  including  all  labor,  supplies  and 
material. 

Prof.  Bioletti.  "Do  you  advocate  the  use  of  sulphur  without  the  nico- 
tine?" 

Mr.  Roberts.  "Yes;  because  it  stays  on  the  vine.  Used  strongly  it  will 
give  about  a  50  per  cent  kill.  It  will  kill  the  very  youngest  nymphs,  but  the 
nicotine  is  the  real  control." 

Mr.  Gray.  "The  atomic  sulphur  is  used  preeminently  as  a  control  for 
the  mildew,  and  used  with  nicotine  they  mix  very  well — the  sulphur  for 
the  control  of  the  mildew  and  the  nicotine  for  the  control  of  the  leaf- 
hopper.  When  nicotine  is  used  alone  with  water  it  is  not  very  effective, 
but  when  used  with  something  else,  as,  for  instance,  whale  oil  soap  as  a 
spreader,  it  will  stick  to  the  leaf." 

Mr.  Swett  to  Mr.  Roberts.     "What  form  of  nicotine  do  you  find  best?" 

Mr.  Roberts.  "Sulphate  of  nicotine,  and  a  spreader  of  soap  is  most 
important  to  the  Emperor  vine." 


THE  GRAPEVINE  FLEA-BEETLE. 
(Haltica  chalybea  Illiger.) 

By  F.  Z.  HARTZELL, 
Vineyard   Laboratory,   Fredonia,   New   York. 


The  first  destructive  insect  to  make  its  appearance  in  the  vineyards  of 
the  eastern  United  States,  with  first  warm  days  of  spring,  is  a  small  active 
beetle  of  a  shining  blue  color.  This  coloration  has  caused  it  to  be  given 
another  name — steely  beetle.  In  common  with  other  beetles  which  have 
the  power  of  leaping  great  distances  it  has  been  called  flea-beetle  and  from 
its  chief  food  plant  it  receives  its  common  name  of  grapevine  flea-beetle. 
In  certain  localities  it  bears  the  additional  appelations:  steel  beetle  and 
steel-blue  beetle. 


202  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

This  trim  blue  beetle  has  been  a  serious  pest  in  New  York  vineyards 
at  various  times  and  it  is  claimed  by  early  entomologists  to  have  caused 
an  immense  amount  of  damage  to  grape  growers.  It  has  appeared  in  the 
literature  for  almost  a  century  and  during  the  latter  part  of  that  period 
it  has  been  mentioned  almost  annually  by  many  observers.  For  these 
reasons  this  species  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  our  grape  pests  so  far  as 
distribution  and  feeding  are  concerned.  Many  of  the  details  of  its  life 
history  and  habits  have  been  described  during  the  past  35  years.  With 
all  these  observations  there  are  many  facts  regarding  the  life  cycle  and 
especially  the  ecology  which  will  bear  careful  observation  and  experi- 
mentation before  this  species  becomes  as  well  known  as  many  of  our 
important  economic  species. 

Economic    Importance. 

The  relative  importance  of  this  insect  as  a  grape  pest  will  be  given 
by  another,  but  there  are  several  observations  regarding  the  species  in 
the  Chautauqua  and  Erie  grape  belt  which  may  be  of  interest.  After  care- 
ful study  of  this  pest  for  six  years,  during  several  of  which  there  have  been 
severe  infestations,  it  appears  that  all  accounts  of  the  loss  of  fruit  by  this 
insect  are  correct.  However,  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  the  statements  of 
most  observers  regarding  the  killing  of  the  vines  by  the  beetles  and  our 
own  observations.  In  a  very  severe  outbreak  in  one  locality  in  1913  the 
insects  were  as  numerous  as  one  finds  mention  of  in  the  literature,  yet 
few  vines  were  killed  in  a  vineyard  of  six  acres  (19  vines  out  of  4020,  .4 
of  one  per  cent).  The  only  explanation  offered  is  that  it  is  possible  that 
in  former  outbreaks  a  large  number  of  beetles  were  concentrated  on  a 
small  number  of  vines  owing  to  the  vineyards  being  smaller  and  not  in 
such  close  proximity  to  each  other  as  at  present.  Whatever  the  explanation, 
the  number  of  vines  killed  at  present  is  almost  nil  when  the  area  of  the 
vineyards  is  considered.  The  damage  to  the  crop  may  be  great  in  restricted 
areas  but  it  is  small  when  compared  with  the  tonnage  of  this  grape  belt. 
Unfortunately  all  the  loss  occurs  in  a  few  vineyards  and,  to  the  owners  of 
these,  this  pretty  blue  insect  is  a  source  of  considerable  financial  loss. 
Under  New  York  conditions,  this  flea-beetle  is  found  each  year  in  a  few 
localities.  The  proximity  of  waste  land  having  wild  grapes  appears  to 
be  the  controlling  factor  in  its  distribution,  for  it  evidently  does  not  thrive 
in  cultivated  vineyards  exclusively.  In  the  region  just  mentioned  not  more 
than  one  per  cent  of  the  area  is  infested. 


Food   Plants. 

The  chief  food  plants  of  the  grape-vine  flea-beetle  are  the  various 
species  of  wild  and  cultivated  grapes  found  in  the  eastern  United  States. 
Most  accounts  are  in  connection  with  injury  to  cultivated  vines.  The 
occasional  feeding  on  other  food  plants  evidently  occurs  when  the  beetles 
have  accidentally  gotten  away  from  grapes.  The  writer  has  made  fall  and 
spring  observations  on  the  feeding  habits  of  this  beetle  for  several  years, 
including  the  examination  of  a  number  of  common  plants  commonly  re- 
ported as  fed  upon  by  this  insect.  The  following  species  showed  no  feed- 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  203 

ing:  apple,  plum,  pear,  peach,  beech  (Fagus  grandifolia),  American  elm, 
sugar  maple  (Acer  saccharum),  elder  (Sambucus  canadensis),  raspberry 
(black  and  red),  blackberry,  strawberry,  red  osier  (Cornus  stolonifera), 
Crategus  spp.,  birch  (Betulaleadlsnta),  willow  (Salix  alba),  ash  (Fraxinus 
americana),  sumac  (Rhus  typhina),  common  chickweed,  Virginia  creeper, 
dog  tooth  violet  (Erytbronium  americanum),  and  dandelion.  The  only 
food  plants  found  during  five  seasons  have  been  the  Concord  grape  and  the 
wild  blue  grape  (Vitis  bicolor).  The  beetles  prefer  the  Concord  during  the 
spring  but  during  late  summer  and  autumn  feed  almost  entirely  on  the 
foliage  of  the  wild  blue  grape.  Vitis  riparia  and  V.  cinerea  are  rather  rare 
in  this  region  (Chautauqua  Co.,  N.  Y.)  and  the  beetles  have  not  been  found 
on  them,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  these  insects  do  not  use  these  species 
for  food  plants.  On  the  other  hand,  we  believe  that  it  means  that  the 
locality  in  which  these  two  species  were  found  was  not  infested  at  the 
times  the  observations  were  made  for  not  all  localities  in  which  the  wild 
blue  grape  grows  have  been  found  to  be  infested. 

In  the  literature  mention  is  made  of  the  following  food  plants:  wild  and 
cultivated  species  and  varieties  of  grapes  (species  or  varieties  seldom  given), 
apple,  pear,  plum,  peach,  quince,  blue  or  water  beech,  elm,  and  Virginia 
creeper.  The  black  alder  is  mentioned  but  the  evidence  points  to  this  as  an 
error  of  mistaking  Haltica  bimarginata  for  H.  chalybea.  The  elm  has  been 
reported  as  a  food  plant  a  number  of  times  but  it  appears  that  where  grapes 
are  abundant  the  elm  is  not  preferred. 

Feeding   Habits. 

The  flea-beetle  attacks  the  vine  during  three  periods  of  the  insect's  life, 
viz.,  during  June  and  July  as  a  larva,  during  August  and  September  after 
emerging  from  the  pupal  stage  and  during  April,  May  and  June  after  hiber- 
nating. The  larvae,  soon  after  hatching,  eat  the  soft  tissues  on  the  upper 
sides  of  the  leaves,  chiefly  feeding  to  the  fine  network  of  veins  which  they 
leave  intact  (Fig.  1).  This  area  is  always  irregular  and  soon  turns  brown, 
giving  the  leaves  a  scorched  appearance  when  seen  at  a  short  distance.  The 
larvae  may  be  found  feeding  from  near  June  15th  until  about  July  20th. 

The  adults  upon  emerging  from  the  pupal  cells  may  eat  sparsley  the 
leaves  of  cultivated  grapes  but  generally  fly  to  nearby  woodland  and  there 
feed  on  the  leaves  of  wild  grapes  although  the  amount  of  food  used  is  very 
small.  At  this  time  the  adults  are  difficult  to  find,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the 
rather  extensive  area  in  which  the  wild  grape  grows  and  also  to  the  lessened 
activity  of  the  beetles.  The  writer  holds  the  view  that  the  greater  heat  and 
lower  humidity  of  the  vineyards  is  a  factor  in  this  movement  of  the  beetles 
to  the  woodland  where  the  heat  is  less  and  the  humidity  is  higher.  What- 
ever the  cause,  these  beetles  disappear  as  if  by  magic  and  are  seldom  seen 
by  the  vineyardist  until  the  following  spring. 

Although  the  beetles  may  be  lacking  in  voraciousness  in  the  fall,  this 
tendency  disappears  in  the  spring  upon  the  return  of  warm  weather.  They 
feed  almost  continuously  after  their  long  winter's  sleep,  especially  during  the 
first  few  weeks  after  emergence  from  hibernation.  It  is  at  this  time  they  do 
their  greatest  damage  to  cultivated  vineyards  for,  after  passing  the  winter 
in  the  waste  and  woodland,  there  is  a  general  tendency  to  disperse  after 


204 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Fig.  1.     Larvae  feeding  on  foliage. 


they  resume  feeding.  At  such  times  they  travel  a  distance,  usually  with  the 
wind,  and  upon  entering  a  vineyard  begin  feeding  on  the  swelling  buds  of  the 
grape,  eating  holes  in  them  (Pig.  2b). 

They  tear  off  small  areas  of  the  bud  scales  and  eat.  into  the  green  por- 
tion of  the  bud,  tearing  the  tissues  with  their  mandibles.  The  circular  hole 
results  from  the  insect  eating  all  the  food  it  can  reach  without  removing  any 
more  of  the  dry  bud  scales  and  continuing  this  process  until  the  interior  of 
the  bud  is  often  entirely  eaten.  The  more  common  effect  of  feeding  is  to  eat 
to  the  center  of  the  bud.  By  this  time  the  appetitie  is  satisfied,  for  a  short 
period  at  least,  and  the  beetle  moves  elsewhere.  Such  injured  buds  never 
develop  and  the  crop  of  grapes,  which  normally  would  have  developed  from 
them,  is  destroyed.  Later  from  beneath  these  buds,  new  ones  usually  develop 
but  these  seldom,  if  ever,  produce  fruit.  On  severely  infested  vines,  often 
every  bud  is  destroyed.  In  fact,  we  have  seen  several  hundred  vines  thus 
injured.  Of  the  4,020  vines  in  this  vineyard,  1,048  vines  escaped  injury,  but 
56  per  cent  of  the  fruit  was  ruined  in  the  buds,  making  a  monetary  loss  of 
$220.00.  When  the  buds  which  remain  uninjured  have  opened,  the  beetles 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


205 


Fig.  2. 


(a)  Eggs  of  the  Flea  Beetle  (enlarged  about  six  times). 

(b)  Typical  injury  to  the  vine  bud  (somewhat  enlarged). 


feed  upon  the  foliage,  eating  irregular  holes  in  it.  (Fig.  3.)  The  greatest 
injury  by  the  beetles  is  done  during  May  and  early  June.  After  June  10th 
the  foliage  has  advanced  so  as  to  suffer  little  from  the  feeding.  About  this 
time  also  the  adults  begin  to  die.  By  July  1st  few  of  the  adults  remain. 


Description  of  the   Insect. 

Egg.  The  eggs  of  the  grapevine  flea-beetle  are  small  orange  or  saffron 
colored  bodies  of  a  cylindrical  shape,  having  the  ends  almost  hemispherical 
(Fig.  2a).  They  vary  considerably  in  size.  In  1913,  227  eggs  were  measured  and 
were  found  to  have  a  mean  length  of  1.03  m.m.  (.04  inch)  and  a  mean  diameter 
of  .42  m.m.  (0.165  inch).  The  range  in  length  was  from  .76  to  1.22  m.m.  (.03 
to  .048  inch)  while  the  range  in  diameter  was  from  .3  to  .54  m.m.  (.012  to  .021 
inch).  The  outer  covering  of  the  eggs  has  a  uniformity  roughened  appear- 
ance due  to  small  depressions  found  over  the  entire  surface.  If  this  coating 
be  removed,  the  inner  coating  of  the  egg  is  seen  as  an  almost  transparent 
membraneous  covering  and  the  egg  has  a  light  yellow  color.  These  two  layers 
are  frequently  seen  on  eggs  for  in  lifting  the  bark  to  examine  them  the  outer 
covering  is  often  ruptured. 

Larva.  When  the  larva  is  in  the  first  instar  (i.  e.  between  hatching  and 
the  first  moult)  it  is  dark  brown  and  the  head  is  very  large  in  proportion  to 
its  body.  The  body  tapers  gradually  to  the  anal  segment  and  is  covered  with 


206 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Fig.  3.    Adult  beetle  and  work  on  young  leaf  (enlarged  about  twice). 

many  long  hairs.  During  the  later  stages  the  larva  is  lighter  in  appearance. 
The  color  immediately  after  a  moult  is  light  yellow  but  soon  changes  to  a 
dark  yellow  with  numerous  dark  areas  which  surround  tubercules  bearing 
short  setae.  The  dark  areas  near  the  median  line  join  those  opposite,  thus 
giving  the  appearance  of  dark  transverse  stripes.  The  length  of  the  fully 
developed  larvae  vary  from  7  to  9  m.m.  (.276  to  .354  inch). 

Pupa.  The  body  of  the  pupa  is  yellow  with  the  wings  and  legs  almost 
white.  They  are  from  4  to  6  m.m.  (.16  to  .24  inch)  in  length. 

Adult.  The  beetles  are  about  5  m.m.  (.2  inch)  in  length  and  of  a  shining 
steel-blue  color.  The  color  varies  with  individuals  from  a  purple  to  a 
metallic  green.  The  body  and  elytra  are  such  as  to  give  the  insect  a  rather 
stout  appearance.  The  femora  of  the  hind  legs  are  very  much  thickened  by 
the  presence  of  large  muscles  which  give  the  capacity  for  jumping — a  very 
common  habit  of  these  beetles  to  escape  danger.  The  lively  habits  and  the 
bright  color  of  these  adults  distinguish  them  from  other  pests  of  the  vine. 


Seasonal   History. 

Hibernation.  During  the  late  summer  and  autumn  the  grapevine  flea- 
beetles  are  rather  sluggish  and  retire  to  the  woodland  as  described  above. 
They  seek  hibernating  places  under  the  rough  bark  of  trees,  in  the  crevices 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  207 

of  wood,  and  among  deal  leaves  and  rubbish.  Here  they  remain  dormant 
until  the  warm  weather  of  spring  arouses  them  from  their  winter's  sleep. 
Entrance  into  winter  quarters  takes  place  about  the  time  the  leaves  of  the 
grape  fall. 

Emergence  from  hibernation.  The  first  few  warm  days  of  spring  do  not 
arouse  these  beetles  but  when  there  has  been  an  accumulation  of  tempera- 
ture sufficient  to  bring  forth  the  first  dandelion  blossoms  in  sheltered  places 
we  expect  to  find  the  first  beetles  feeding  in  places  where  they  are  sheltered 
from  chilling  winds.  For  several  seasons  observations  of  the  first  appearance 
of  the  adults  have  been  made  and  the  first  blooming  dates  of  common  wild 
plants  noted.  From  these  observations  we  learn  that  the  adults  may  be  ex- 
pected to  appear  very  near  the  time  of  the  first  blooming  of  several  plants, 
as  follows:  dandelion,  yellow  adders  tongue  (Erythronium  americanum),  and 
gill-over-the-ground  (Nepeta  hederacea).  Early  in  the  spring  the  beetles 
may  appear  during  a  warm  day,  then  a  succession  of  cold,  cloudy  days  will 
drive  them  back  to  shelter.  When  the  temperature  is  below  50  F.  it  is  use- 
less to  look  for  the  beetles  on  the  vines.  Feeding  seldom  takes  place  unless 
the  temperature  is  above  55  F.  Temperatures  above  65  will  be  sufficient  to 
produce  extensive  feeding  and  some  dispersion  although  this  latter  phenome- 
non takes  place  more  rapidly  the  higher  the  temperature  at  least  up  to  80. 
This  relation  of  temperature  is  seen  from  the  direction  of  spread  in  the  vine- 
yard into  which  the  insects  have  migrated.  Here  they  will  infest  the  por- 
tion which  is  best  protected  from  cold  winds  and  therefore  is  warmer. 

Mating.  After  feeding  for  a  day  or  two  the  beetles  begin  to  mate  and  this 
continues  during  the  greater  part  of  a  month,  some  individuals  mating  over 
a  period  of  six  weeks.  In  cages  the  same  individuals  were  observed  mating 
during  this  period  of  time. 

Egg  deposition.  The  laying  of  eggs  begins  early  in  May  and  is  continued 
until  near  the  middle  of  June.  In  cages  the  average  length  of  the  egg  laying 
period  has  been  23  days  but  one  female  was  observed  to  oviposit  for  52  days. 
The  longest  egg  laying  period  for  all  the  females  any  single  season  has  been 
53  days.  Eggs  are  laid  during  the  warmer  parts  of  the  day  and  it  has  been 
noted  that  the  variations  in  temperature  affects  the  rate  of  laying  consider- 
ably during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  but  only  slightly  after  June  1.  The 
reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that  by  this  date  the  females  have  laid 
the  greater  number  of  their  eggs  and  the  maximum  daily  temperature  is 
usually  above  65.  During  May  we  have  never  found  the  beetles  laying  if  the 
maximum  temperature  for  the  day  was  below  60. 

In  cages  during  four  seasons  in  which  a  large  number  of  beetles  were 
under  observation,  the  mean  number  of  eggs  laid  by  a  single  female  has 
been  63,  the  maximum  number  164  and  the  minimum  55.  The  number  of 
eggs  laid  per  day  by  a  female  averaged  3  with  a  maximum  of  25. 

The  eggs  are  generally  deposited  underneath  the  loose  bark  of  the  canes 
(Fig.  2a)  near  the  buds  but  are  not  tucked  under  the  bark  as  tightly  as  are  the 
eggs  of  the  grape  root  worm.  Many  of  the  eggs  are  placed  on  the  rough  area 
surrounding  the  buds  and  some  are  placed  on  the  growing  shoots  and  even  on 
the  leaves.  Egg  parasites  do  not  attack  the  eggs  to  any  extent  even  though 
exposed.  The  females  place  their  eggs  in  these  positions  so  that  the  young 
larvae  upon  hatching  will  have  a  short  distance  to  go  for  food.  These  newly 


208  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

hatched  larvae  do  not  have  the  strength  to  move  far  before  first  partaking 
of  food  and  if  this  is  not  nearby  they  perish. 

Hatching.  This  occurs  during  the  entire  month  of  June  and  early  July 
being  most  active  from  about  June  10th  to  July  1st.  A  very  early  season  may 
cause  a  few  to  hatch  the  last  week  of  May. 

Feeding  habits  of  the  larvae.  These  grubs  seek  the  green  tissues  either 
of  the  shoots  or  of  the  foliage  but  principally  the  upper  surfaces  of  the 
latter,  although  some  feeding  occurs  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  also. 
They  are  often  found  devouring  the  young  flower  buds  and  also  feed  on  the 
blossoms.  The  extent  of  injury  caused  by  the  larvae  is  small  aHhough  we 
have  seen  a  few  vines  which  had  the  leaves  badly  eaten  by  them.  Our 
object  in  killing  the  larvae  is  to  destroy  the  developing  crop  of  beetles  which 
would  injure  the  crop  the  following  season. 

Summary  of  Life   History. 

There  is  only  one  generation  of  beetles  annually  although  the  genera- 
tions of  two  years  overlap.  The  length  of  life  of  the  insect,  counting  the 
egg  stage  as  a  part,  is  slightly  more  than  13  months.  During  the  latter  part 
of  June  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  find  all  four  stages  of  the  insect,  but 
usually  all  the  eggs  have  hatched  before  any  of  the  larvae  have  entered  the 
pupal  stage.  The  egg  stage  averages  about  one  month  in  duration,  the  larval 
period  is  slightly  over  three  weeks,  the  pupae  require  about  two  weeks  before 
emerging  as  beetles,  and  since  the  adults  emerge  about  the  last  week  in  July 
and  live  until  the  middle  of  June  their  life  is  about  11  months.  These  are 
averages  and  for  the  Lake  Erie  Valley,  but  even  here  it  is  possible  for  the 
maximum  length  of  life  to  be  15  months. 

Natural  Control. 

The  grapevine  flea-beetle  fluctuates  in  numbers  considerably  from  one 
season  to  another,  but  the  exact  causes  of  these  variations  have  not  been 
determined.  The  eggs  are  not  attacked  by  parasites  to  any  extent.  The 
larvae,  however,  are  preyed  upon  by  a  species  of  carabid  which  closely  re- 
sembles the  adult  flea-beetle  in  size  and  color. 

These  insects  were  not  found  in  numbers  so  their  activity  does  not  de- 
crease the  number  of  larvae  to  any  great  extent.  The  writer  has  found  the 
nymphs  of  one  of  the  Pentotomidae  piercing  the  bodies  of  the  larvae  and 
sucking  the  body  fluids.  Unfortunately  the  few  nymphs  found  died  before 
reaching  maturity  thus  preventing  the  determination  of  the  exact  species. 
From  the  account  given  by  Slingerland,6  we  surmise  that  these  were  the 

In  the  vineyards  the  adults  do  not  appear  to  be  fed  upon  by  birds  but  we 
do  not  know  to  what  extent  this  takes  place  in  late  summer.  We  have  not 
been  able  to  estimate  the  number  of  beetles  that  are  destroyed  by  climatic 
factors  and  predaceous  enemies  after  leaving  the  vineyards.  This  is  due  to 
the  scattering  of  the  beetles  over  large  areas  where  their  observations  is 
most  difficult  but  it  appears  that  the  greatest  reduction  occurs  during  the 
period  of  adult  life. 


6  Slingerland,  M.  V.    Cornell  Agr.  Expt,  Sta.  Bui.  157,  pp.  203,  204. 
nymphs  of  Podisus  modestus,   Dallas.     This  author  also   reports  finding  a 
common  lady  beetle,  Megilla  maculata,  De  Geer,  feeding  on  the  young  grubs. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  209 

Artificial  Control. 

When  these  beetles  appear  in  a  vineyard  in  immense  numbers  it  is 
evident  that  the  owner  must  adopt  means  for  the  eradication  of  the  pest,  if 
he  hopes  to  save  the  grape  crop.  Three  methods  of  control  are  practical 
against  the  adults,  viz.,  spraying,  hand  picking  and  destruction  of  wild  vines. 

Spraying.  The  bordeaux  mixture  (100  gals.)  and  arsenate  of  lead  (6  Ibs.) 
is  distasteful  to  the  beetles  so  that  vines  sprayed  with  this  material  will  be 
avoided  by  the  beetles  which  seek  unsprayed  vines.  It  is  true  that  such  a 
dispersion  often  saves  the  vines,  but,  as  it  serves  to  scatter  the  insects  and 
does  not  kill  them,  can  hardly  be  called  a  method  of  control.  For  several, 
years  we  have  known  that  this  beetle  is  fond  of  molasses  and  that  this  ma- 
terial when  added  to  arsenate  of  lead  serves  to  poison  them  owing  to  its 
serving  as  a  bait.  The  lack  of  adhesion  of  the  arsenate  of  lead  when  mixed 
with  molasses  makes  its  use  somewhat  of  a  lottery  for  if  rains  should  appear 
shortly  after  spraying,  the  material  will  be  washed  off  the  vines  and  thus  its 
benefits  lost.  Owing  to  the  frequency  of  rains  in  New  York  during  May, 
we  do  not  recommend  this  material  unreservedly,  but  advise  that  it  be  used 
if  rains  can  be  avoided  and  if  the  infestation  of  the  vineyard  is  such  as  to 
make  spraying  practical. 

Hand  picking.  At  first  thought  this  method  might  be  considered  too  ex- 
pensive but  in  practice  generally  it  has  been  found  cheaper  than  spraying. 
One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  this  is  the  fact  that  the  attack  usually  is  in  a 
restricted  portion  of  the  vineyard  and  in  order  to  spray  this  the  entire  length 
of  the  rows  must  be  traversed  by  the  spray  outfit  thus  causing  much  loss  of 
time.  A  person  with  a  milk  pan,  having  a  diameter  of  not  less  than  15  inches, 
on  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  shallow  layer  of  kerosene,  can  knock  the  beetles 
into  the  pan  by  striking  the  canes  with  a  short  stick,  the  pan  being  held  a 
little  below  the  place  where  the  beetle  is  sitting.  The  oil  kills  the  insects 
almost  instantly.  In  this  manner  several  thousand  beetles  can  be  captured 
in  a  short  time  and  at  slight  expense.  It  usually  is  necessary  to  repeat  this 
operation  several  times  but  even  then  the  expense  is  less  than  that  of  spray- 
ing, unless  the  latter  can  be  done  very  economically  and  no  bad  weather 
interferes. 

Destruction  of  wild  vines.  This  method  of  control  is  based  upon  the 
fact  that  wild  vines  are  necessary  for  the  insects  in  the  autumn  and  when 
these  are  destroyed  the  insects  seek  other  places  to  feed  and  the  vineyard 
usually  escapes  injury. 

Spraying  during  the  time  the  larvae  are  feeding.  There  is  no  period  in 
the  life  of  the  grapevine  flea-beetle  at  which  it  can  be  controlled  more  easily 
than  while  feeding  as  larvae.  Since  feeding  usually  occurs  on  the  upper 
surfaces  of  the  leaves  it  is  very  easy  to  place  the  material  where  it  will  be 
effective.  No  trouble  is  experienced  in  killing  the  insects  by  the  use  of 
arsenate  of  lead  (6  Ibs.)  in  water  (100  gals.)  or  if  preferred  the  poison  can 
be  used  with  bordeaux  mixture.  The  application  should  be  made  after  the 
maximum  number  of  eggs  have  hatched.  This  spraying  at  times  coincides 
with  the  first  spraying  for  the  grape  root-worm  but  generally  a  separate 
application  is  necessary.  The  killing  of  the  larvae  avoids  injury  by  the 
beetles  the  following  spring  unless  a  large  area  of  unsprayed  vineyards  ad- 
join. Under  this  latter  condition  spring  migration  may  cause  trouble. 


210  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

THE  ROSE  CHAFER. 

(Macrodactylus  subspinosus  Fabricius.) 

By  F.  Z.  HARTZELL, 
Vineyard  Laboratory,  Fredonia,  New  York. 


Perhaps  no  fruit  insect  is  better  known  to  eastern  fruit  growers  than 
the  rose  chafer,  or  rose  bug,  which  not  only  feeds  on  grapes  and  other  fruits 
but  by  its  depredations  is  a  source  of  annoyance  to  the  growers  of  flowering 
plants.  Its  common  name  has  been  applied  on  account  of  injury  caused  to 
roses.  The  literature  abounds  with  references  to  its  destructive  feeding 
habits.  In  the  Chautauqua  and  Erie  grape  belt  (extending  from  Erie,  Penn- 
sylvania, to  near  Buffalo,  New  York)  it  is  not  common  except  in  several 
localities  but  in  these  local  areas  it  has  produced  considerable  monetary 
loss. 

This  paper  will  be  confined  chiefly  to  the  investigations  and  observations 
of  the  writer  except  where  otherwise  mentioned  so  all  dates  given  refer  to 
the  south  shore  of  the  Lake  Erie  Valley  in  which  the  above  mentioned  belt 
is  situated.  For  this  reason  the  dates  will  not  be  the  same  as  in  other  parts 
of  the  insect's  range  but  it  is  believed  that  the  relation  between  the  time  of 
flowering  of  the  grape  and  the  emergence  of  this  beetle  will  be  found  to 
hold,  judging  from  the  writings  of  others. 

Economic  Importance. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  financial  losses  caused  by  this  insect.  Being 
almost  omnivorous,  we  must  include  injury  to  other  fruits  and  losses  to 
commercial  flowers  as  well  as  damage  to  grapes.  It  injures  cherries  and 
grapes  to  a  greater  extent  than  other  plants,  but  occasionally  causes  serious 
losses  to  apples.  Nor  are  its  ravages  confined  to  these  fruits  since  much 
loss  has  been  recorded  on  raspberries,  blackberries,  strawberries  and  florists' 
plants.  The  beetles  attacking  the  blossoms  can  do  an  immense  amount  of 
damage  in  a  short  time  but  it  is  chiefly  owing  to  its  great  numbers  that  it 
works  such  havoc. 

History. 

The  rose  chafer  was  described  by  Fabriciusi  who  gave  it  the  scientific 
name  Melolontha  subspinosus.  Latreille  established  the  genus  Macrodactylus 
(which  means  great  toe)  and  placed  the  species  in  this  genus  thus  giving  the 
insect  the  present  scientific  name.  The  first  account  of  its  economic  im- 
portance was  by  J.  Lowell  (1826). 2  The  following  year  Harriss  published  a 
partial  account  of  the  life  history  of  the  insect.  This  author  gave  the  first 
complete  account  of  the  life  history  (1841). 4  The  writings  of  other  writers 
occurs  in  the  1852  and  1862  Eds.) 


1  Fabricius,  Syst.  Ent.    1798. 

2  Lowell,  J.,  Mass.  Agr.  Repos.  and  Jour.    9:143-147.    1826. 

3  Harris,  T.  W.,  Mass.  Agr.  Repos.  and  Jour.    10:1-12.    1827. 

4  Harris,  T.  W.,  Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation.  1841.    (The  same  account 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  211 

until  1890  dealt  chiefly  with  the  food  habits,  distribution  and  destructiveness 
of  this  pest.  Rileyo  (1890)  summarized  the  then  known  facts  regarding  the 
species  in  an  important  paper.  Smiths  (1891)  made  extensive  studies  on  the 
life  habits  and  methods  of  control  which  show  that  the  rose  chafer  is  a 
difficult  pest  to  control.  Spraying  with  arsenical  poisons  generally  with 
bordeaux  mixture  was  the  chief  method  used  by  investigators  for  nearly 
twenty  years  after  the  work  of  Smith  and,  as  this  usually  proved  a  failure, 
hand  picking  was  the  remedy  usually  recommended. 

A  new  method  of  attack  was  used  by  Taft?  in  1909  and  this  has  proven 
to  be  very  useful  in  killing  the  beetles.  He  used  molasses  as  a  bait  for  the 
insects  and  mixing  arsenate  of  lead  with  this  secured  decided  results.  The 
author,8  in  1910,  not  knowing  of  Taft's  results  found  that  confectioners'  glu- 
cose (25  Ibs.)  and  arsenate  of  lead  (10  Ibs.)  in  water  (100  gals.)  to  be  an 
effective  remedy.  Since  that  time  we  have  found  that  cheap  molasses  (1 
gal.)  gave  just  as  good  results  as  the  glucose  (25  Ibs.)  and  this  has  reduced 
the  cost  considerably.  The  amount  of  arsenate  of  lead  has  been  reduced  to 
6  Ibs.  which,  with  more  care  of  application,  has  proven  as  effective  as  the 
larger  amount. 


Food   Plants. 

The  rose  chafer  as  adult  feeds  upon  a  large  number  of  plants  but  shows 
a  decided  preference  for  certain  species.  It  also  prefers  the  flowers  to 
either  the  leaves  or  the  fruit  of  the  plant  attacked.  The  kinds  chosen  first 
after  emergence  are  grape,  rose,  apple,  peach,  plum  and  cherry,  of  which 
grapes  are  always  chosen  if  at  hand.  After  feeding  upon  the  flowers  of  the 
grape  for  a  week  to  ten  days  they  show  a  tendency  to  disperse  and  we  find 
them  flying  to  and  feeding  upon  the  blossoms  of  the  stag  horn,  sumac,  elder 
(Sambucus  canadensis)  and  red  osier  (Cornus  stolonifera).  Raspberry  and 
blackberry  foliage  is  also  fed  upon  rather  extensively.  During  this  period, 
the  beetles  are  found  on  a  long  list  of  species,  in  fact,  they  seem  to  feed 
upon  mcst  common  plants  except  evergreens  and  conifers.  We  are  inclined  to 
believe,  judging  from  observations  of  several  years  and  where  many  of  these 
so-called  food  plants  grew  near  the  infested  vineyard,  that  a  number  of  the 
food  plants  listed  are  fed  upon  only  accidentally.  However,  the  fact  that 
these  insects  can  subsist  on  such  a  number  of  species  of  plants  makes  it 
obvious  that  we  cannot  hope  to  control  them  by  destroying  their  food  plants. 

Food  plants  of  the  larvae.  The  grubs  of  the  rose  chafer  feed  chiefly 
(perhaps  entirely)  on  the  roots  of  various  grasses  of  which  the  timothy, 
foxtail  (Setaria  glauca)  and  the  several  species  of  bluegrass  appear  to  be 
preferred.  They  have  never  been  found  feeding  on  the  roots  of  the  grape 
although  the  larvae  have  been  found  in  the  soil  of  vineyards  in  which  the 
several  grasses  named  were  growing. 


5  Riley,  Dr.  C.  V.,  Insect  Life.     2.295-302.     1890. 

6  Smith,  Dr.  J.  B.,  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  82.    1891. 

7  Taft,  L.  R.,  48  Ann.  Rep.  St.  Bd.  of  Agr.  of  Mich.,  p.  157.    1909. 

8  Hartzell,  F.  Z.,  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  331,  pp.  543-549.    1910. 


212  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Character  and   Extent  of  Injury. 

By  the  adult.  Feeding  is  confined  largely  to  the  blossoms  of  the  various 
plants  attacked  so  that  a  rather  small  amount  of  feeding  causes  much  loss 
to  the  crop  of  fruit  (Fig.).  It  is  true  that  the  foliage  of  many  plants  is  eaten 
but  this  loss  is  insignificant.  In  fact,  the  adult  seldom  injures  plants  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  interfere  with  their  growth.  The  destruction  of  the  fruit  in 
such  a  wholesale  manner,  especia'ly  when  myriads  of  these  insects  emerge, 
and  also  the  marring  of  blossoms  for  florists  constitute  the  chief  form  of 
injury  by  this  pest. 

In  a  vineyard  of  four  acres  we  have  seen  90  per  cent  of  the  crop  de- 
stroyed and  on  two  acres  of  these  grapes  about  99  per  cent  of  the  fruit  was 
taken  by  these  insects  feeding  on  the  blossoms.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
possibilities  for  injury  which  these  chafers  possess  are  enormous  but  in  the 
Chautauqua  and  Erie  grape  belt  only  several  rather  small  areas  are  infested. 

By  the  larva.  So  far  as  that  writer  has  learned,  there  is  no  account  of 
injury  to  cultivated  crops  by  the  larvae.  The  fact  that  they  feed  in  hay 
fields  and  pasture  land  wouM  indicate  that  a  certain  amount  of  injury  would 
result  but  generally  the  larvae  are  too  few  to  the  square  yard  to  cause  a  loss 
that  could  be  noted.  If  these  grubs  were  very  numerous  per  given  area  (say 
a  square  yard)  it  would  be  possible  for  them  to  cause  injury  to  hay  and 
pasture  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  white  grub. 

Description. 

Egg.  The  eggs  of  the  rose  chafer  (Fig.)  are  small,  oval  bodies  having  a 
glossy,  white  appearance.  They  average  1.2  m.m.  (.047  inch)  in  length  and 
7  m.m.  (.028  inch)  in  diameter. 

Larva.  The  larva  resembles  the  common  white  grub  except  that  when 
each  is  full  grown,  the  latter  is  larger  (Fig.).  They  are  of  a  grayish-white 
color  except  the  posterior  portion  which  usually  is  dark  owing  to  the  remains 
of  food  which  are  seen  through  the  body  wall.  When  full  grown  these  larvae 
are  about  20  mm.  (.8  inch)  in  length.  The  head  is  a  light  brown  and  bears 
antennae  which  are  short  and  consist  of  four  segments.  The  head  and 
body  are  rather  thickly  covered  with  bristle-like  hairs.  The  feet  are  dark 
and  have  prominent  setae. 

Pupa.  The  pupa  (Fig.)  is  of  a  yellow  color  and  about  15  m.m.  (.6  inch)  in 
length.  The  shrivelled  skins  are  frequently  found  clinging  to  the  posterior 
segment.  The  developing  legs  and  wings  are  prominent. 

Adult.  The  adult  is  about  12.5  m.m.  (.5  inch)  in  length  and  has  a  general 
appearance  of  yellowish-brown  (Fig.).  The  insect  in  very  awkward  because 
of  its  long  legs,  or,  to  be  more  exact,  its  long  feet.  The  legs  are  of  a  reddish- 
brown  color  and  the  feet  are  black.  The  antennae  bear  a  prominent  club-like 
arrangement  at  the  tips  which  consist  of  three  thin  plates.  These  may  be 
appressed  or  separated  by  the  insect  and,  doubtless  serve  in  the  capacity  of 
olfactory  organs. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


213 


214  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Seasonal   History. 

Egg  deposition.  The  females  prefer  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  light,  sandy 
soil  and  our  observations  indicate  that  either  the  females  do  not  oviposit  in 
heavy  soil  or  the  eggs  (if  laid  there)  do  not  hatch,  for  we  have  never  taken 
larvae  from  any  but  the  lighter  soils.  This  influence  of  soil  was  especially 
marked  in  an  infested  vineyard  and  hay-land  at  Westfield,  New  York, 
although  grapes  and  grass  were  on  both  types  of  soil  on  the  same  farm 
only  the  grass  roots  on  the  light  soil  were  fed  upon  by  the  larvae  of  the  rose 
chafer.  The  eggs  are  deposited  near  the  roots  of  grass  to  enable  the  young 
larvae  to  find  food  in  the  shortest  time. 

The  question  of  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  a  single  female  has  been  one 
that  we  have  tried  to  answer  by  means  of  numerous  cage  experiments  but, 
with  the  best  of  attention,  the  greatest  number  laid  was  25  while  the  average 
was  so  low  that  it  has  no  value  owing  to  the  large  number  of  cages  in  which 
no  eggs  were  produced  as  well  as  a  number  in  which  only  several  eggs  were 
laid.  Dissections  of  beetles  gave  various  numbers  of  eggs  ranging  from  13 
to  30  to  a  female.  Dr.  Smith  secured  from  females,  by  dissection,  from  24  to 
36  eggs.  For  some  reason  the  beetles  do  not  oviposit  freely  when  confined 
in  cages  of  any  practical  size.  With  all  care  and  precautions  to  secure  as 
near  natural  conditions  as  possible,  the  number  of  eggs  laid  was  less  than 
would  be  expected,  judging  from  dissection  records.  The  evidence  indicates 
that  the  rose  chafer  does  not  lay  a  large  number  of  eggs — perhaps  50  is  the 
maximum. 

The  depth  at  which  eggs  were  placed  varied  from  3  to  6  inches  and  all 
were  placed  singly.  The  time  of  egg  laying  occupies  a  period  of  nearly  three 
weeks,  the  dates  for  a  normal  season  being  from  June  25th  to  July  15th  but 
the  finding  of  copulating  beetles  as  late  as  July  20th  would  indicate  that  they 
may  lay  until  near  August  1st  certain  seasons. 

Larva.  Hatching  occurs  about  two  weeks  after  the  eggs  are  laid  and  the 
young  grub  feeds  on  the  roots  of  grasses.  This  feeding  is  continued  until 
late  in  the  autumn,  even  a  slight  breeze  seems  to  be  necessary  to  compel  the 
grubs  to  seek  a  lower  level  and  desist  from  feeding.  They  dig  to  a  depth  of 
a  foot  or  more  to  avoid  the  extreme  cold  but  leave  these  winter  quarters  as 
soon  as  warm  weather  appears  in  the  spring,  and  resume  feeding  which  is 
continued  until  the  latter  part  of  May.  The  larvae  usually  have  attained  full 
growth  by  autumn  of  the  preceding  year. 

Pupa.  The  larvae  form  cavities  in  the  soil  from  three  to  six  inches 
below  the  surface  and  here  change  to  pupae.  These  have  been  found  as 
early  as  May  19th  but  the  majority,  during  a  normal  season,  enter  this  stage 
near  June  1st.  Two  weeks  is  the  usual  extent  of  the  pupal  period  but  cool 
weather  may  retard  it  to  three  weeks.  Very  few  larvae  are  found  after 
June  1st  and  few  pupae  after  June  20th. 

Emergence.  This  coincides  very  closely  with  the  blooming  of  Concord 
and  Niagara  grapes.  In  1911  the  first  beetles  appeared  nearly  a  week  before 
these  grapes  blossomed  and  it  is  claimed  by  growers  that  one  season  the 
beetles  did  not  appear  until  the  grapes  were  nearly  through  blossoming.  The 
earliest  appearance  noted  by  us  was  June  3d  but  the  period  from  June  10th 
to  20th  is  the  usual  time  they  have  emerged.  Emergence  is  more  rapid  dur- 
ing the  warmer  parts  of  the  day. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  .       215 

Mating.  The  mating  habits  of  these  beetles  are  conspicuous  because 
they  appear  to  copulate  during  most  of  the  time  they  are  on  the  vines, 
beginning  soon  after  partaking  of  the  first  food  and  extending  for  several 
weeks.  Unlike  most  beetles  they  can  be  picked  off  the  flowers  and  upon 
being  placed  in  a  vial  will  continue  to  copulate,  at  least,  for  a  short  time. 

SUMMARY    OF    THE    LIFE    CYCLE. 

The  life  of  one  of  these  beetles  occupies  a  period  of  about  13  months  of 
which  almost  11  months  are  passed  in  the  larval  stage.  The  egg  stage  lasts 
about  two  weeks,  the  pupal  stage  two  weeks  and  the  life  of  the  adults  about 
one  month.  The  adults  die  the  latter  part  of  July  and  early  August. 

NATURAL    CONTROL. 

The  most  important  natural  means  of  holding  this  insect  in  check  appear 
to  be  two:  the  few  eggs  laid  by  the  females  and  the  destruction  of  the  larvae 
by  ground  beetles — species  of  the  family  Carabidae.  The  abundance  of  these 
beetles  in  soil  infested  with  grubs  of  the  rose  chafer  led  the  writer  to  place 
them  in  cages  with  larvae  of  the  latter  insect  and  here  one  species  of  Carabid 
beetle  ate  the  grubs.  Harpalus  pennsylvanicus  was  seen  eating  grubs  in  one 
of  the  cages  but  the  abundance  of  other  species  in  the  soil  infested  with 
larvae  of  the  rose  chafer  would  lead  us  to  expect  to  find  that  some  of  the 
other  species  are  also  enemies  of  this  pest.  As  this  investigation  is  in 
progress  at  the  present  time  we  hope  to  be  able  to  report  the  same  in  a 
later  publication. 

ARTIFICIAL    CONTROL. 

Various  methods  for  the  control  of  this  pest  have  been  advocated;  three 
of  these  appear  to  be  the  most  practical.  They  are  (1)  spraying  with 
arsenical  poisons,  (2)  hand  picking,  and  (3)  cultivation  during  the  pupal 
stage. 

Spraying.  Entomologists  have  recommended  various  poison  sprays  for 
this  insect  but  the  use  of  bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  has  been 
the  one  most  widely  used.  This  material  acted  more  as  a  repellent  than  as  a 
poison  and  while  good  results  have  been  claimed  from  its  use  by  some, 
other  workers  have  failed  to  control  the  beetles  if  numerous.  For  this  reason 
the  rose  chafer  has  always  been  considered  a  difficult  pest  to  kill  at  least  in 
time  to  save  the  crop.  The  use  of  the  sweetened  sprays  has  been  attended  with 
success  during  the  past  six  years  and  they  are  the  only  ones  recommended. 
The  mixture  consists  of  cheap  molasses  (1  gal.),  arsenate  of  lead  (6  Ibs.), 
and  water  (100  gals.),  and  should  be  used  as  soon  as  the  beetles  appear  on 
the  vines.  It  may  be  necessary  to  make  a  second  application  within  a  week 
after  the  first  one  if  the  insects  continue  to  reinfest  the  vines.  As  mentioned 
previously  all  sprays  containing  molasses  must  be  applied  so  as  to  avoid 
rains,  and  should  rain  occur  the  application  must  be  repeated  if  the  beetles 
have  not  been  poisoned. 

Hand  Picking.  Sometimes  the  beetles  are  collected  by  hand.  This  is 
effective  but  expensive.  A  practical  method  is  to  shake  the  beetles  into  a 
cloth,  shaped  much  like  an  umbrella  and  having  a  can  attached  to  the  apex 


216  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

of  this  inverted  cone.  The  can  should  have  a  rather  deep  layer  of  kerosene 
to  kill  the  beetles.  This  method  of  control  requires  that  the  vineyard 
receive  several  treatments  for  unless  the  vines  are  kept  free  from  the 
beetles  during  this  entire  period  much  loss  is  sure  to  result. 

Cultivation  during  the  pupal  stage.  Large  numbers  of  pupae  will  be 
killed  if  the  land  is  plowed  and  harrowed  during  the  period  these  insects 
are  in  their  cells  transforming  to  adults.  These  cells  are  from  three  to  eight 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  usually  not  lower  than  six  inches  and 
thus  can  be  easily  reached  by  tools  used  for  cultivation. 

It  will  pay  even  to  plow  grass  land  that  is  severely  infested  rather  than 
to  save  it  for  making  hay  for  under  ordinary  conditions  the  infested  area  is 
not  extensive  and  the  damage  to  vineyards  far  exceeds  the  value  of  the  hay 
crop  that  would  be  gathered  from  the  infested  soil.  The  pupal  cells  are 
crushed  and  the  insects  die  from  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air. 

This  remedy  has  a  very  limited  application  for  frequently  these  insects 
do  not  develop  in  arable  land  but  inhabit  waste  land  or  sand  knolls  which 
may  have  a  quantity  of  scrub  trees  growing  thereon.  At  other  times  the 
cultivated  land  on  which  these  grubs  develop  belongs  to  another  person 
or  the  conditions  are  such  that  tillage  is  out  of  the  question.  For  example 
we  know  of  one  instance  where  the  rose  chafer  larvae  occurred  in  the  lawn 
of  a  large,  well  kept  cemetery  and  upon  emerging  as  beetles  wrought  havoc 
to  a  cherry  planting  near  by. 


RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From  a  practical  standpoint  it  is  best  to  use  the  molasses  and  arsenate 
of  lead  spray  when  the  beetles  first  appear  on  the  vines  and  repeat  this  in  a 
few  days  if  the  beetles  continue  to  reinfest  the  vines.  The  spraying  may 
come  while  the  grapes  are  in  blossom,  which  would  make  little  difference  so 
far  as  the  pollination  of  the  flowers  is  concerned,  but  in  certain  States  there 
are  laws  forbidding  the  spraying  of  trees  or  vines  while  in  blossom.  Under 
such  conditions,  as  law  abiding  citizens,  it  would  be  necessary  to  adopt  the 
method  of  hand  picking.  Whatever  method  is  used  emphasis  must  be  placed 
on  the  necessity  of  energetic  efforts  as  soon  as  the  first  beetles  appear  for 
it  requires  but  a  few  days  for  these  devastators  to  destroy  the  crop.  Cultural 
measures  that  will  decrease  the  number  of  chafers  are  recommended  where 
they  can  be  applied. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  217 


THE  GRAPE  BERRY  MOTH. 
(Polychrosis  viteana) 

By  W.  H.  GOODWIN, 
Assistant  Entomologist,  Wooster,  Ohio. 


The  Grape  Berry  Worm  (Polychrosis  viteana)  has  been  very  destructive 
in  certain  localities  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  during  the  past 
ten  or  eleven  years.  It  has  attracted  considerable  attention  in  some  other 
States,  but  has  never  done  enough  damage  to  be  of  any  great  economic  inter- 
est excepting  in  the  States  named.  The  berry  worm  is  a  native  species  which 
seems  to  have  almost  abandoned  its  original  food  plant,  the  wild  grape,  and 
has  taken  up  with  the  cultivated  varieties  of  grapes  wherever  they  are  grown. 
In  Ohio,  the  chief  regions  suffering  from  the  depredations  of  this  insect  are 
along  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  outlying  islands.  It  seems  to  have 
been  especially  severe  in  its  attack  in  the  region  of  Cleveland  and  Sandusky, 
and  the  islands  near  the  Peninsula  of  Marblehead,  but  it  is  not  confined  to 
this  region  by  any  means.  From  Dayton,  Columbus,  Springfield  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  points,  its  injuries  have  been  reported.  In  the  locality  of 
Wooster,  this  insect  destroyed  most  of  the  grape  crop,  especially  in  grape 
arbors  and  small  vineyards  in  and  around  the  city  in  some  seasons.  Frost 
destroyed  the  grape  crop  several  times  so  the  infestation  has  almost  disap- 
peared some  years.  The  injury  done  to  the  grape  crop  varies  from  a  small 
per  cent  of  infested  berries  to  95  per  cent  of  the  crop,  and  many  vary  from 
a  slight  infestation  on  one  side  of  the  vineyard  to  over  80  per  cent  infestation 
on  the  other  side  of  the  vineyard.  These  points  may  not  be  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  a  mile  apart.  During  1908  and  1909,  the  berry  worm  almost  dis- 
appeared in  the  regions  of  Marblehead  and  the  islands  in  that  vicinity.  It 
was  quite  plentiful  just  east  of  Cleveland  in  1908,  but  had  almost  disappeared 
in  1909  and  in  1910  it  did  not  seriously  damage  the  crop  in  this  region.  In 
1912  and  1913  the  injury  east  and  west  of  Cleveland  was  very  severe,  and  in 
1914,  although  the  crop  was  heavy,  the  injury  was  very  severe. 

The  grape  berry  worm  was  first  recorded  about  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago 
and  being  from  a  practically  new  country,  was  recorded  as  a  new  species. 
A  few  years  later,  the  authenticity  of  the  species  was  doubted  and  in  1870 
some  specimens  were  sent  to  one  of  Europe's  specialists  who  pronounced 
them  as  identical  with  the  European  species,  Eudemis  botrana. 

Its  species  identity  was  not  questioned  again  until  Prof.  M.  V.  Slinger- 
land,  in  a  report  of  his  studies  published  in  1904,  gave  a  record  of  its  life 
history  and  habits.  He  found  that  the  life  history  of  the  American  species 
differed  greatly  from  that  of  the  European  moth.  These  differences  had  been 
previously  recorded,  yet  in  classifying  this  moth,  the  record  of  its  different 
habits  had  been  entirely  ignored.  W.  D.  Keerfoot  monographed  this  genus 
of  tortricids  in  1904  and  gave  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  berry  worm 
moth  and  a  number  of  closely  related  species,  referring  it  back  to  the  name 
given  by  Clemens  (Polychrosis  viteana). 


218 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


Fig.  1.     Moth  (x5);     Larvae  (x8). 

The  larvae  of  Polychrosis  viteana  have  often  been  found  feeding  in  the 
clusters  of  wild  grapes  and  as  the  species  is  confined  in  its  range  to  North 
America,  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  a  native  species  turned  pest  through 
the  destruction  of  its  original  food  plant.  Riley  gives  an  account  of  its 
ravages  in  Illinois  and  Missouri  in  1868  and  1869.  At  this  time,  it  was  noted 
that  the  larvae  pupated  in  a  fold,  or  flap,  of  the  leaf  by  drawing  a  section  of 
the  leaf  over  itself  and  spinning  a  silken  cocoon  inside.  Eudemis  botrana 
pupates  on  the  posts,  trellises  or  rough  vines  and  never  in  a  fold  or  pocket  of 


Fig.  2.     Pupa  in  fold  of  edge  of  leaf. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


219 


Fig.  3.     Pupae  in  folded  flap  of  leaf  (x6). 


the  leaf.  Saunders  gives  a  brief  account  of  Polychrosis  viteana  in  his  Ontario 
report  in  1882.  Felt  (1904)  reports  the  first  beneficial  work  from  spraying 
with  arsenicals.  In  some  experiments  for  the  control  of  the  Grape  Fidia 
(Fidia  viticida)  beneficial  effects  were  obtained  and  the  berry  worm  was 
partially  controlled.  Polychrosis  viteana  was  reported  as  injurious  in  the 
vineyards  of  Ohio  in  1868,  and  again  in  1881  it  did  considerable  injury  to 
grapes  on  the  islands  of  Lake  Erie.  At  various  times,  its  occurrence  has 
been  reported  from  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Dela- 
ware, Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Texas,  Nebraska  and  Ontario. 

The  adult  is  a  small  moth,  lilaceous  and  brown  in  color,  and  measures 
from  nine  to  twelve  millimeters  across  its  expanded  wings.  When  at  rest 
the  moth  is  triangular  in  appearance  and  is  scarcely  six  millimeters  long 
and  not  more  than  two  and  one-half  to  three  millimeters  broad.  They  take 
flight  at  the  slightest  disturbance  and  are  rapid  flyers  and  crawl  rapidly  about 
the  breeding  jar  when  disturbed.  Keerfoot  describes  the  moth  as  follows: 
"Front  wing,  ground  color,  lilaceous  or  leaden  blue.  The  outer  marginal  patch 
is  sharply  indented  above  the  anal  angle  by  a  spur  of  the  ground  color,  the 
inner  edge  is  less  straight  than  botrana  and  bulges  inward  at  the  middle  of 
wing;  the  color  is  dark  brown.  The  central  fascia  is  more  slender  than 
botrana,  its  outer  spur  is  sharply  produced,  in  some  specimens  turning 
upward  toward  costa  and  almost  joining  submarginal  patch.  The  inner  fascia 
is  narrower  than  botrana  and  the  two  short  inner  dorsal  fascia  are  only 
indicated  by  a  few  brown  scales.  Apical  spot  is  larger  than  botrana  and 
there  are  three  smaller  rectangular  oblique  spots  or  costa  beyond  the  central 
fascia.  The  inner  spot,  which  in  botrana  is  as  distinctly  defined  as  the  other 
four,  is  in  viteana  not  separable  from  central  fascia.  A  few  short  streaks 
on  costa  before  the  middle.  A  shade  of  pale  yellowish-brown  involves  the 
outer  half  of  costa  between  the  central  fascia  and  outer  patch,  giving  the 


220  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

outer  half  of  wing  this  color.     Hind  wing  smoky-brown  becoming  paler  at 
base.    Expanse  10  to  11.5  millimeters." 

Very  few  American  collections  contain  specimens  of  botrana  for  com- 
parison with  viteana,  so  Riiey's  description  will  be  more  valuable  to  the 
average  student.  "Perfect  insect:  Average  length  0.17;  alar  expanse,  0.37. 
Head,  thorax,  palpi  and  basal  half  of  antennae  fulvous.  Terminal  half  of 
antennae  darker.  Legs  fulvous,  becoming  darker  on  tarsi.  Ground  color  of 
forewings,  pale  slate-blue  with  slight  metallic  luster  which  becomes  lighter 
and  somewhat  silvery  anteriorly  and  posteriorly.  A  dark  rich  brown  band, 
with  a  light,  somewhat  silvery  annulation,  proceeds  from  the  middle  of  the 
costa  towards  the  inner  margin,  becoming  paler  anteriorly;  its  basal  margin 
being  indistinct  but  running  almost  straight  across  the  wing,  its  outer  margin 
well  defined,  curving  to  a  rounded  point  which  reaches  to  the  middle  of  the 
outer  third  of  the  wing  and  thence  running  obliquely  inwards  nearly  to  the 
middle  of  the  inner  margin.  Beyond  this  middle  band  is  a  large,  deep  brown 
somewhat  oval  spot,  also  lighter  below  than  above  and  with  a  pale  annula- 


Fig.  4.     Adult  Moth  (xlO). 

tion,  which  is  broken  on  the  outer  side  above,  allowing  the  spot  to  extend 
to  the  margin  of  the  wing.  Above  this  large  spot  at  the  apex,  is  a  small, 
perfectly  round  dark  spot,  with  a  bright  annulation  inclining  to  orange  color. 
The  space  enclosed  by  the  middle  band,  and  these  two  spots  just  described, 
are  brown  above  with  usually  four  lighter  fulvous  costal  marks,  quite  distinct, 
each  mark  divided  at  costa  by  a  slight  touch  of  brown.  Another  somewhat 
triangular  brown  spot  with  a  light  annulation  above,  runs  from  the  posterior 
angle  up  between  the  middle  band  and  a  large  oval  spot.  The  blue  space 
from  the  middle  band  to  the  base  of  wing  is  generally  brownish  near  base, 
with  a  brown  line  across  the  middle  from  costa  to  inner  margin,  and  with 
two  other  costal  brown  marks.  The  fringes  partake  of  the  ground  color. 
Hind  wings  slate  brown,  darkest  near  margin;  fringes  same  color.  Body 
brownish  with  frequently  a  clear  green  tint.  The  male  differs  principally  in 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  221 

its  somewhat  smaller  size,  and  especially  in  the  smaller  size  of  the  abdomen. 
Individuals  vary  greatly." 

"Larva — average  length  0.35  inches.  Largest  on  segments  ten  and  eleven 
tapering  thence  gradually  to  the  head,  and  suddenly  to  the  anus.  Color 
either  dark,  shiny,  olive  green,  glaucus  or  brownish.  Head  and  cervical 
shield  honey-yellow,  the  latter  with  a  darker  posterior  margin.  Piliferous 
spots  scarcely  distinguishable.  Described  from  ten  specimens." 

"Chrysalis  0.18-0.20  inches  long.  Of  normal  form.  Quite  variable  in  color. 
Usually  of  light  honey-yellow,  with  a  green  shade  on  the  abdomen,  and  black 
eyes,  but  sometimes  entirely  dark  green  with  light  eyes.  The  chrysalis  skin, 
after  the  moth  has  left,  is  always  deep  honey-yellow,  with  the  green  abdomi- 
nal mark  distinct." 

The  eggs  are  thin,  semi-transparent  and  much  flattened  with  a  finely 
reticulated  surface  and  are  oval  in  outline.  Slingerland  describes  them  as 
"The  thin,  rounded,  scale-like,  semi-transparent  eggs,  measure  six  to  eight 
by  seven  to  nine  millimeters  in  size  and  appear  whitish  in  a  few  days. 
The  shell  is  finely  reticulated  and  the  egg  appears  to  be  glued  to  the  fruit  by 
some  substance.  The  eggs  look  much  like  the  codling  moth's  eggs,  only 
smaller." 

Life   History. 

In  northern  Ohio,  the  adults  of  Polychrosis  viteana  normally  emerge 
from  their  winter  cocoons  during  the  first  or  second  week  in  June.  Winter 
is  passed  in  the  pupal  stage,  in  cocoons  spun  in  a  fold  of  the  leaf  the  previous 
fall,  on  leaves  stuck  in  the  wet  soil  or  partially  covered  with  mud,  and  are 
seldom  found  in  the  piles  of  leaves  or  in  trash  into  which  leaves  have  been 
drifted  by  the  wind.  A  few  days  after  emerging  the  moths  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  buds  or  stems  of  clusters  of  grape  blossoms,  or  on  the  young  grapes. 
The  larvae  hatch  in  from  four  to  eight  days  and  feed  on  the  tender  stems  and 
developing  berries  of  the  grape  cluster.  The  work  of  the  larvae  is  fairly 
conspicuous  at  this  season  of  the  year,  as  the  entire  cluster  is  often  webbed 
together  by  delicate  white  silken  threads  which  the  larvae  spin  around  part 
of  the  young  grape  bunch.  Inside  this  web,  the  larvae  devours  the  flower 
buds,  or  young  berries,  of  the  grape,  often  almost  destroying  the  young  grape 
clusters.  The  idea  that  the  berry  worm  might  have  another  host  plant  at  this 
season  of  the  year  has  been  suggested  by  the  size  of  the  brood  later  in  the 
season,  but  this  is  impossible  as  there  is  no  other  plant  excepting  grapes  in 
many  of  the  worst  infested  localities.  The  injuries  by  the  second  brood  of 
the  European  berry  moth  is  partially  prevented  by  going  through  vineyards 
when  the  first  brood  of  worms  are  attacking  the  newly  formed  berries,  and 
crushing  the  larvae  in  every  infested  cluster  of  grapes.  This  method  cannot 
be  utilized  to  any  considerable  advantage  in  America  on  account  of  the  cost 
of  labor.  The  larva  is  full  grown  in  from  20  to  25  days,  and  migrates  from 
the  bunch  of  destroyed  or  injured  grapes  to  young  grape  leaves,  where  it 
draws  the  edge  of  the  leaf  over  itself  by  silken  threads  attached  to  the  sur- 
face and  edge  of  the  leaf.  This  forms  a  fold,  or  tube,  inside  of  which  it 
pupates.  In  from  seven  to  ten  days  the  pupa  pushes  itself  almost  out  of  the 
cocoon,  splits  open  at  the  anterior  and  along  the  back  for  almost  half  its 
length  and  the  moth  of  the  second  brood  appears.  The  normal  date  of 
emergence  of  a  large  part  of  the  brood  of  moths  is  from  the  6th  to  12th  of 


222 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


August  in  northern  Ohio.  These  moths  lay  their  eggs  on  the  berries  of  the 
grape  clusters.  The  berries  are  almost  grown,  and  at  this  season  of  the  year 
the  eggs  hatch  in  a  very  short  time,  certainly  not  more  than  three  to  five 
days  after  they  are  laid.  The  larvae  bore  through  the  skin  of  the  grape  and 
feed  on  the  cells  of  the  developing  berry,  sometimes  just  below  the  skin  of 
the  berry. 


Fig.  5.     Injury  to  young  bunch  by  larvae. 


A  few  berries  may  have  only  a  purple  spot  on  their  sides,  but  the  charac- 
teristicly  injured  berry  slits  open  and  is  often  reddish  or  purplish  along  the 
side  of  the  break.  This  freshly  broken  open  berry  is  an  ideal  place  for  the 
spores  of  the  various  rots  of  grapes  to  settle  and  grow.  In  some  localities, 
this  injury  has  been  attributed  to  the  grape  rots  when  the  real  trouble  was 
the  first  brood  of  larvae  of  the  grape  berry  worm,  which  created  ideal  con- 
ditions for  the  growth  of  rot  fungi  through  the  injury  done  to  the  berries. 
The  second  brood  of  larvae  bore  into  the  almost  full  grown  grape  berries 
partially  cutting  off  the  supply  of  nourishment  to  the  cells  above  the  injured 
portion,  and  we  have  the  purplish  or  reddish  purple  spot  surrounding  the 
point  of  entrance  and  often  extending  over  one  side  of  the  berry.  This  is  the 
typical  injury  noted  by  Riley  in  his  Missouri  reports,  and  in  northern  Ohio 
is  caused  by  the  second  brood  of  larvae.  Riley  describes  this  brood  as 
follows:  "Its  presence  is  soon  indicated  by  a  reddish-brown  color  on  that 
side  of  the  yet  green  grape  which  it  enters.  On  opening  the  grape  a  winding 
channel  is  seen  in  the  pulp,  and  a  minute  white  worm  with  a  dark  head  is 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


223 


seen  at  the  end  of  the  channel.  It  continues  to  feed  upon  the  pulp  of  the 
fruit,  and  when  it  reaches  the  seeds,  eats  out  their  interior.  As  it  matures, 
it  becomes  darker,  being  either  of  an  olive  green  or  dark  brown  color,  with  a 
honey-yellow  head,  and  if  one  grape  is  not  sufficient,  it  fastens  the  already 
ruined  grape  to  an  adjoining  one  by  means  of  silken  threads,  and  proceeds 
to  burrow  in  it  as  it  did  in  the  first.  When  full  grown,  it  leaves  the  grape 
and  forms  its  cocoon  on  the  leaves  of  the  vine.  This  operation  is  performed 
in  a  manner  essentially  characteristic;  the  worms  cut  out  a  clean  oval  flap, 
leaving  it  hinged  on  one  side,  and,  rolling  this  flap  over,  fastens  it  to  the 
leaf,  thus  forming  for  itself  a  cozy  little  house  which  it  lines  on  the  inside 
with  silk.  In  this  cocoon  within  two  days  it  changes  to  a  chrysalis  of  a  honey- 
yellow  color  of  a  green  shade  on  the  abdomen." 


Fig.  6.     Wormy  berries  in  July. 


The  individuals  of  the  second  brood  of  larvae  have  a  tendency  to  leave 
the  berries  in  which  they  are  working  and  attack  other  berries  which  are 
close  to,  or  touching  the  berry  in  which  the  worm  has  been  feeding,  leaving 
each  berry  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  ferment,  for  a  sound  berry.  It  spins  a 
silken  covering  between  the  berries,  attaching  each  newly  attacked  berry  to 
the  preceding  one  in  which  it  has  fed.  In  this  way,  as  many  as  five  of  six 
berries  may  be  destroyed  by  one  worm.  The  juice  in  the  injured  berries 
evaporates  and  frequently  a  bunch  of  grapes  has  half  or  more  of  the  grapes 
dried  out  with  only  the  purple  or  black  dried  skins  remaining  and  looking 
almost  like  sound  grapes.  In  many  vineyards,  I  have  found  fully  half  of  the 
berries  in  a  cluster  of  grapes,  which  were  only  shells. 

Many  larvae  of  this  brood  are  not  mature  until  late  in  October  and  they 
are  often  active  after  we  have  had  some  severe  frosts.  The  earlier  maturing 


224  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

larvae  spin  their  cocoons  before  many  of  the  leaves  fall.  They  drop  to  the 
ground,  or  let  themselves  down  by  silken  threads,  often  falling  with  the 
berry  in  which  they  are  feeding.  These  larvae  then  seek  some  leaf  anchored 
in  the  soil,  or  lodged  in  the  mud;  cut  the  tiny  flap  and  spin  a  thin  white 
silken  cocoon,  inside  of  which  they  transform  to  pupae.  Here  they  pass  the 
winter  as  pupae,  and  emerge  as  moths  the  following  June. 

The  habits  of  the  larvae  are  distinctive  and  characteristic  of  this 
insect.  The  dark  olive-greenish  or  bluish-black  larvae  are  very  active  when 
disturbed.  The  individuals  of  the  last  brood  of  larvae  will  wiggle  out  of  a 
bunch,  if  disturbed,  and  lower  themselves  rapidly  to  the  ground,  on  a  silken 
thread.  When  found  in  a  berry,  they  will  often  crawl  out  and  escape  capture. 
The  larva,  in  spinning  a  cocoon,  usually  draws  over  the  edge  of  the  leaf  and 
makes  a  folded  pocket  inside  of  which  it  spins  its  cocoon.  Sometimes  it  cuts 
a  flap  out  of  the  central  part  of  a  leaf,  but  this  is  not  the  most  common  way. 
These  cocoons  usually  break  out  of  the  dried  leaf  during  the  fall  or  winter 
and  lay  on  the  ground  until  they  transform  into  moths  the  following  June. 

In  no  case  could  the  larvae  be  induced  to  spin  upon  grass  or  other  leaves 
than  grape  leaves,  when  they  were  introduced  into  the  breeding  cages,  but 
a  few  spun  upon  moist  newspaper.  Many  larvae  transformed  to  pupae 
without  spinning  a  cocoon  of  any  kind  and  the  remainder  died  without 
attempting  to  spin  cocoons.  The  little  lilaceous  brown  moths  are  very  incon- 
spicuous when  at  rest  on  the  bark  of  a  grapevine  or  on  dead  wood.  When 
disturbed,  they  fly  with  a  rapid  motion  of  the  wings,  with  a  peculiar  zig- 
zagging flight  which  makes  them  very  hard  to  follow.  They  fly  low,  and 
usually  are  most  active  from  3 : 30  until  dusk.  Perhaps  they  are  active  during 
the  night,  but  they  are  very  difficult  to  follow. 

Various  methods  of  control  have  been  tried,  but  spraying  thoroughly 
with  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  and  weak  bordeaux  mixture  to  which 
two  pounds  of  soft  soap  has  been  added,  is  the  most  effective  remedy.  Three 
applications  of  spray  are  usually  given;  one  just  before  the  grapes  bloom,  a 
second  when  the  grape  berries  are  almost  as  large  as  peas,  or  three  to  five 
millimeters  in  diameter,  and  a  third  application  in  the  latter  part  of  July, 
varying  with  the  season  and  locality  from  July  25th  to  August  6th.  Burning 
all  the  leaves  and  trash  early  in  the  fall  will  assist  in  controlling  the  berry 
worm  to  a  limited  extent.  Gathering  all  of  the  leaves,  anchored  in  the  soil, 
in  the  fall  before  the  frost  causes  all  the  leaves  to  fall,  taking  care  not  to 
allow  the  cocoons  to  break  out  and  fall  to  the  ground,  putting  them  in  a 
tight  basket  and  burning  them,  will  help  greatly  in  controlling  the  berry 
worm.  Plowing  fairly  deep  before  the  25th  of  May  will  bury  many  of  the 
cocoons  so  deep  that  the  moths  will  never  get  out.  Heavy  sprayings  with 
arsenate  of  lead  and  soap  (the  soap  makes  the  spray  stick  better  and  helps 
it  to  spread  around  the  smooth  berries)  is  the  most  satisfactory  means  of 
control. 

In  spraying  for  the  grape  berry  worm  a  number  of  poisons  were  tried  as 
the  most  promising  remedies — arsenate  of  soda,  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of 
lead — and  during  the  season  of  1910  arsenate  of  lead  in  combination  with 
lime-sulphur,  which  gives  largely  an  arsenous  sulphide  as  the  poison.  These 
poisons  were  used  alone,  with  bordeaux,  with  soap,  with  resin  soap,  and  with 
bordeaux  and  soap.  Arsenate  of  lead,  bordeaux  and  soap  gave  the  best 
results  in  every  case,  using  three  pounds  arsenate  of  lead,  two  pounds  copper 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  225 

sulphate,  three  pounds  lime,  and  two  pounds  of  dissolved  soft  soap,  to  each 
50  gallons  of  water.  The  lime-sulphur  combinations  almost  completely  de- 
foliated the  grapes  and  should  not  be  used  as  a  summer  spray  for  grapes. 

In  treatments,  the  grapes  were  machine-sprayed  with  a  traction  sprayer 
by  going  through  between  the  rows  once,  and  spraying  each  row,  one  on  each 
side;  by  going  through  the  rows  twice,  giving  them  a  double  machine  applica- 
tion; by  spraying  heavily  using  special  spars  on  a  power  sprayer,  and  by 
spraying  the  grapes  by  hand  with  nozzles  directed  by  the  experimenter. 
Hand  work  gave  the  best  results  by  a  small  per  cent,  but  double  machine 
work  was  much  more  rapid  and  one  machine  could  cover  three  to  five  acres 
per  day,  going  over  each  row  twice.  The  power  sprayer  covered  the  grapes 
with  spray,  only  one  application  being  necessary,  using  135  to  180  gallons  per 
acre.  Per  cents  are  as  follows  for  the  season  of  1907: 

Wormy 

Unsprayed  with  poison 58.37  per  cent 

Hand  Sprayed  once  in  late  July 2.90  per  cent 

Single  Machine  Sprayed  twice — June  and  late 

July   20.44  per  cent 

Sprayed  three  times,  double  machine 4.47  per  cent 

Sprayed  three  times  by  hand 3.00  per  cent 

These  results  were  for  the  season  of  1907  and  show  the  percentages  of 
wormy  grapes.  The  treatment  in  July,  spraying  once  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
shows  a  very  small  per  cent  of  wormy  grapes,  but  the  yield  was  smaller  than 
on  the  other  plots.  The  unsprayed  plot  yielded  at  the  rate  of  1469  pounds 
per  acre,  while  the  hand  .sprayed  and  double-machine  sprayed  plots  yielded 
at  the  rate  of  over  6,000  pounds  per  acre. 

In  1908,  arsenate  of  lead  only  was  used  as  a  poison,  and  bordeaux  with 
soap  and  iron  sulphate  as  stickers  for  the  poison.  The  results  were  as 
follows. 

Wormy 

Unsprayed,  no  poison 47.43  % 

Sprayed  with  arseuate  of  lead  (spraying  once  before  bloom) 20.88  % 

Sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead,  bordeaux  and  iron  sulphate,  3 

sprayings,  double  machined 1.95  % 

Arsenate  of  lead,  bordeaux  and  soap,  3  sprayings,  double  ma- 
chined        4.67  % 

Arsenate  of  lead,  bordeaux  and  soap,  3  sprayings,  hand  sprayed      .71  % 
These  results  are  based  on  a  certain  number  of  pounds  of  grapes  picked 
at  random  from  each  plot  and  the  wormy  and  sound  berries  counted  in  each 
case. 

The  average  results  for  two  years'  work  are  as  follows: 

Wormy 

Unsprayed  with  poison 52.90  % 

Double  machine,  three  sprayings 4.57  % 

Hand  sprayed,  three  sprayings 1.85  % 

In  this  average,  soap  was  used  as  a  sticker  (during  the  last  two  years  of 
the  experiments)  in  connection  with  the  arsenate  of  lead  and  bordeaux.  In 
1910,  arsenate  of  lead  and  bordeaux  with  soap  was  tried,  in  comparison  with 
commercial  lime-sulphur,  one  in  fifty,  and  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead 
added  to  the  diluted  lime-sulphur.  The  commercial  lime-sulphur  injured  the 


226  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

grape  foliage  on  the  young  and  tender  shoots  and  some  varieties  were  almost 
defoliated.  The  bordeaux,  arsenate  and  soap  sprayed  plot  of  grapes  was  only 
mildly  infested,  so  the  results  were  of  little  value,  as  far  as  the  berry  worm 
control  was  concerned. 

Spraying   Experiments. 

In  the  experiments  of  Euclid  in  1908,  some  eight  acres  of  vineyard  con- 
sisting of  mixed  plantings  of  Concord,  Catawbas  and  Delawares,  with  a  few 
vines  of  other  varieties,  were  divided  into  plots.  Each  plot  was  sprayed 
with  a  different  mixture  of  spray  and  one  plot  was  left  unsprayed.  The 
machine  used  in  applying  the  spray  was  a  field  type  of  traction  sprayer.  A 
chain  gear  from  the  wheels  operated  the  pump  by  an  eccentric  and  the 
horses  in  pulling  the  machine  operated  the  pump.  With  six  nozzles  of  the 
Vermorel  type,  a  pressure  of  60  to  95  pounds  could  be  maintained.  These 
nozzles  on  fixed  spars  delivered  the  spray  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  roof 
of  leaves  and  the  results  obtained  corresponded  to  the  ineffective  efforts  to 
entirely  cover  the  grapes  with  spray  with  this  type  of  spars.  In  this  series 
of  experiments  the  plots  sprayed  carefully  directing  the  nozzle  by  hand  gave 
results  which  were  much  better  than  on  similarly  sprayed  plots  where  fixed 
spars  and  nozzles  were  used.  In  the  hand  sprayed  plots,  every  bunch  of 
grapes  was  covered  with  spray,  leaving  little  opportunity  for  berry  worms  to 
survive. 

Comparing  the  Various   Plots. 

Comparing  single  and  double  spraying  the  results  are  as  follows: 

Plot  2 — Sprayed  3  times,  June  2  to  7,  15  to  20,  July  9  to  14;  single 
machine  sprayed;  sprayed  with  Bordeaux,  3-6-50;  arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds; 
counted  September  15,  1908;  number  of  bunches,  28;  number  of  sound 
berries,  1,195;  number  of  wormy  berries,  328;  per  cent  wormy,  21.5. 

Plot  5 — Sprayed  three  times,  June  2  to  7,  15  to  20,  July  9  to  14;  double 
machine  sprayed;  sprayed  with  Bordeaux,  3-6-50;  counted  September  15, 
1908;  number  of  bunches,  26;  number  of  sound  berries,  1,369;  number  of 
wormy  berries,  143;  per  cent  wormy,  10.4. 

Poison  sprays  giving  the  difference  in  effectiveness  of  stickers  and 
spreaders;  also  machine  and  handwork: 

Plot  8— Sprayed  3  times,  June  2  to  7,  15  to  20,  July  9  to  14;  double 
machine  sprayed;  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  1-6-50;  iron  sulphate,  4 
pounds;  arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  counted  September  14-15,  1908;  number 
of  bunches,  26;  number  of  sound  berries,  1,341;  number  of  wormy  berries, 
182;  per  cent  wormy,  11.9. 

Plot  9— Sprayed  3  times,  June  2  to  7,  15  to  20,  July  9  to  14;  double 
machine  sprayed;  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  3-6-50;  arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds; 
hard  soap  (dissolved),  1  pound;  counted  September  14-15,  1908;  number  of 
bunches,  25;  number  of  sound  berries,  1,469;  number  of  wormy  berries,  72; 
per  cent  wormy,  4.7. 

Plot  12— Sprayed  3  times,  June  2  to  7,  15  to  20,  July  9  to  14;  hand 
sprayed;  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  3-G-50;  arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  hard 
soap  (dissolved),  1  pound;  counted  September  14-15,  1908;  number  of 
bunches,  29;  number  of  sound  berries,  1,528;  number  of  wormy  berries,  11; 
per  cent  wormy,  .7. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


227 


Plot  1 — Unsprayed;  number  of  bunches,  33;  number  of  sound  berries, 
767;  number  of  wormy  berries,  692;  per  cent  wormy,  47. 

Plot  6  was  sprayed  by  going  only  once  between  the  rows  with  the 
traction  sprayer  with  fixed  spars.  No  soap  was  used  in  the  spray  that  was 
put  on  this  plot. 

Plot  10  was  double  machine  sprayed;  that  is,  the  rows  were  sprayed 
twice  by  going  over  the  rows  from  opposite  directions.  In  Plot  10  the 
bunches  were  much  freer  from  berry  worm  injury  and  there  was  but  one 
of  the  badly  injured  bunches  of  grapes  which  seemed  not  to  have  been 
reached  by  the  spray,  as  indicated  by  the  number  of  injured  berries. 

This  is  also  typical  of  the  results  obtained  in  latter  experiments  and 
indicates  how  unsprayed  bunches  of  grapes  tend  to  increase  rapidly  the  per- 
centage of  wormy  grapes. 

Comparing  bunches  as  picked  at  random  from  different  sprayed  plots  the 
difference  in  spraying  is  very  noticeable.  Plots  6  and  10  give  some  striking 
differences  in  thoroughness  of  application  and  differences  in  effectiveness 
of  sprays. 

Sound 
32 
46 
26 
32 
17 
34 
64 
42 
46 
71 
46 
40 
58 

Showing  the  effectiveness  of  different  treatments. 


Plot 

6. 

Wormy 

Sound 

Wormy 

Sound 

1 

58 

1  — 

77 

0 

41 

6 

54 

2 

59 

34 

59 

9 

79 

0 

47 

6 

22 

0 

45 

17 

66 

0 

37 

8 

46 

11 

58 

5 

48 

2 

27 

10 

75 

2 

72 

6 

66 

5 

62 

4 

60 

10 

54 

0 

38 

0 

34 

11 

35 

8 

58 

Plot 

10. 

Wormy 

Sound 

Wormy 

0 

79 

2 

0 

38 

0 

3 

79 

0 

0 

67 

0 

1 

66 

0 

0 

68 

0 

11 

36 

0 

0 

44 

0 

4 

35 

0 

0 

66 

0 

6 

70 

0 

2 

49 

0 

0 

95 

1 

No.  of 
Plol 


TWO   POISON   SPRAYS. 
DATE   OF  SPRAYING 


First 

3 June  2-7 

6 June  2-7 

10 June  2-7 

13 June  2-7 


Second 
June  15-20 
June  15-20 
June  15-20 
June  15-20 


Third 
July  9-14 
July  9-14 
July  9-14 
July  9-14 


HOW  SPRAYED 

Single  Machine 
Double  Machine 
Double  Machine 
Hand  Sprayed 


SPRAYED  WITH 


Plot      First  Second  Third 

3 Bordx.. .. Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead 

6 Bordx. .. .Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead 

10 Bordx.. ..Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead,  Soap. 

13 Bordx...  Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead,  Soap.. ..Bordx.  &  As.  of  Lead,  Soap 


-lound 
Berries 
.  1,175 
.  1,291 
.  1,426 
.  1,511 


Wormy 
Berries 
237 
157 
30 
21 


Wormy 
16.8 
10.8 

2 

1.3 


4.. 
11... 

ONE   POISON   SPRAY. 

June  2-7        June  15-20        July  9-14        Single  Machine 
June  2-7        June  15-20        July  9-14        Double  Machine 
June  2-7         June  15-20        July  9-14        Double  Machine 

14.. 

June  2-7 

June  15-20        July  9-14        Hand  Sprayed 

4... 

...Bordx.. 

..Bordeaux  

Bordx. 

& 

As. 

of 

Lead. 

1,303 

185 

12.4 

- 

...Bordx.. 

..Bordeaux  

Bordx. 

,v 

As. 

of 

Lead 

1458 

164 

10 

11... 

...Bordx.. 

..Bordeaux  

Bordx. 

A 

As. 

of 

Lead, 

Soap.. 

1,500 

29 

1.9 

14... 

...Bordx.. 

..Bordeaux  

Bordx. 

* 

As. 

of 

Lead, 

Soap.. 

1,466 

28 

1.9 

228  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Some  of  these  results  appear  almost  contradictory,  but  the  infestation 
in  different  parts  of  a  vineyard  varies  considerably.  When  the  grapes  receive 
the  two  sprayings  in  June  and  the  third  spraying  is  made  early  in  July,  the 
infestation  often  seems  to  be  worse  where  the  grapes  received  the  three 
sprayings.  Unsprayed  plots  will  often  have  scarcely  any  berries  left  on  the 
bunch  as  all  of  the  earlier  infested  berries  split  open  and  fall  off.  In  the 
sprayed  plots  many  of  the  injured  berries  do  not  fall  off  and  hence  count 
for  a  much  greater  infestation  than  really  exists. 

1913. 

After  a  lapse  of  several  years  experiments  for  the  control  of  the  grape 
berry  worm  were  made  again  in  1913  in  the  East  Cleveland  district.  The 
grapes  in  1913  bloomed  at  least  a  week  later  than  they  normally  do  in  this, 
locality.  The  usual  dates  being  about  June  5  to  10,  while  they  did  not 
bloom  until  the  16th  to  the  20th  of  June  in  1913.  The  set  of  fruit  was  also 
very  light,  which  seems  to  make  suitable  conditions  for  a  very  wormy  crop 
of  grapes.  Light  crops  of  grapes,  when  unsprayed,  are  seemingly  always 
badly  injured  by  the  berry  worm  as  there  is  a  full  quota  of  berry  moths  and 
only  half  or  less  the  number  of  berries  to  attack.  This  results  in  serious 
injury  wherever  the  berry  worm  is  abundant. 

The  plots  selected  were  located  on  almost  level  land  and  each  plot  con- 
sisted of  about  two-thirds  of  an  acre  of  grapes.  The  larger  part  of  this  sec- 
tion were  Concords,  but  the  plots  included  some  Catawbas,  Delawares  and 
Niagaras.  A  series  of  different  sprays  was  used,  applying  the  poison  at 
different  strengths,  using  it  with  and  without  Bordeaux  (2-3-50)  and  also 
without  soap,  with  soap  and  with  Bordeaux  and  soap,  in  order  to  compare 
the  effectiveness  of  the  poison  in  different  combinations.  The  results  are 
given  below  with  data  concerning  the  treatment  of  the  plots. 

Plot  1 — Concords. 

Power  sprayer,  200-pound  pressure,  about  130  gallons  of  spray  per  acre. 

Sprayed  June  9-12.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  3 
pounds;  hard  soap,  1  pound;  lime,  4  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  24-27,  145  gallons  per  acre.  Same  as  first  application,  ex- 
cepting the  heavier  spraying. 

Sprayed  July  15-18,  180  gallons  per  acre.  Arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds; 
copper  sulphate,  3  pounds;  lime,  4  pounds;  hard  soap,  1  pound;  water,  50 
gallons. 

Counted  September  10-11,  1913.     Number  of  bunches,  31;    sound  berries, 
682;  wormy  berries,  271;  per  cent  wormy,  26.7. 

Plot  2 — Concords. 

Power  sprayer,  135  gallons  per  acre. 

Sprayed  June  9-12,  1913.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  3 
pounds;  lime,  4  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  21-27,  145  gallons  per  acre. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  3  pounds;  lime,  4  pounds; 
water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  July  14-18,  180  gallons  per  acre. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  229 

Arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  3  pounds;  lime,  4  pounds; 
water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  10-11,  1913.  Number  of  bunches,  31;  sound  berries, 
546;  wormy  berries,  271;  per  cent  wormy,  33.1. 

Pot  3 — Concords. 

Power  sprayer,  135  gallons  per  acre. 

Sprayed  June  9-12,  1913. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  4  pounds;  lime,  4  pounds; 
hard  soap,  1  pound;  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  24-27,  145  gallons  per  acre.     Same  spray. 

Sprayed  July  14-18,  180  gallons  per  acre. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  6  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  4  pounds;  lime,  4  pounds; 
hard  soap,  1  pound;  water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  10-11,  1913.  Number  of  bunches,  34;  sound  berries, 
858;  wormy  berries,  207;  per  cent  wormy,  19.4. 

Plot  3 — Delawares. 

Number  of  bunches,  28;  sound  berries,  1,041;  wormy  berries,  229;  per 
cent  wormy,  18. 

Plot  4 — Concords. 

Power  sprayer,  135  gallons  per  acre. 
Sprayed  June  9-12,  1913. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  soap  (hard),  1  pound,  water,  50  gallons. 
Sprayed  June  24-27,  145  gallons  per  acre.     Same  as  first  spraying. 
Sprayed  July  14-18,  180  gallons  per  acre. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds;  hard  soap,  1  pound;  water,  50  gallons. 
Counted  September  10-11,  1913.     Number  of  bunches,  32;   sound  berries, 
499;  wormy  berries,  421;  per  cent  wormy,  45.7. 

Plot  5 — Concords. 

Power  sprayer,  field  spars;  135  gallons  per  acre. 

Sprayed  June  9-12,  1913.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  3 
pounds;  lime,  4  pounds;  flour  in  paste  form,  4  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  24-27,  145  gallons  per  acre.     Same  spray  as  first. 

Sprayed  July  14-18,  180  gallons  per  acre.    Same  spray  as  first  and  second. 

Counted  September  10-11,  1913.  Number  of  bunches,  33;  sound  berries, 
684;  wormy  berries,  246;  per  cent  wormy,  26.4. 


Plot  6 — Concords. 

Power  sprayer;  135  gallons  per  acre,  using  fixed  spars. 

Sprayed  June  9-12,  1913.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  3 
pounds;  lime,  4  pounds;  hard  soap,  1  pound,  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  24-27;  145  gallons  per  acre,  using  fixed  spars.  Same  spray 
as  first. 


230  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

Sprayed  July  14-18;  180  gallons  per  acre,  applied  by  hand.  Arsenate  of 
lead,  4  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  3  pounds;  lime,  4  pounds;  hard  soap,  4 
pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  10-11,  1913.  Number  of  bunches,  33;  sound  berries, 
657;  wormy  berries,  213;  per  cent  wormy,  24.4. 

U  nsprayed — Concords. 

Number  of  bunches,  67;  sound  berries,  221;  wormy  berries,  1,177;  per 
cent  wormy,  84. 

The  dates  or  time  of  making  the  different  applications  was  based  on 
the  previous  experiments  made  in  the  grape  districts  of  Ohio  and  also  on  the 
work  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  spray  was  applied  with  a  power  machine  of  large  capacity  and  at 
200  pounds  pressure.  The  spars  were  of  the  fixed  type,  but  the  nozzles  were 
not  pointed  at  right  angles  to  the  grape  row.  The  nozzles  were  placed  com- 
paratively low  down  and  were  angled  so  that  the  spray  was  thrown  upward 
and  outward  as  well  as  forward  and  backward,  meeting  the  roof  of  the 
leaves  edgewise  instead  of  throwing  the  spray  against  the  roof-like  protecting 
surface  of  the  leaves.  These  spars  were  designed  by  the  author,  in  order 
to  completely  cover  the  bunches  of  grapes  with  spray  in  as  thorough  a  man- 
ner as  possible,  approaching  the  best  hand  spraying  in  covering  capacity 
without  extra  labor.  The  ability  to  cover  a  considerable  area  of  vineyard 
rapidly  with  a  minimum  expense  for  labor  was  also  an  important  item  as 
directing  the  spray  nozzles  by  hand  adds  greatly  to  the  cost  of  spraying 
grapes.  These  spars  with  the  nozzles  angled  outward  and  upward  saved 
the  labor  cost  of  the  two  men  required  to  direct  the  nozzles  in  hand  spray- 
ing. The  cost  of  spraying  an  acre  of  grapes  for  the  season  varied  slightly 
with  the  different  treatments.  Basing  the  cost  of  the  spraying  material  on 
the  plots  having  the  largest  percentage  of  good  grapes,  three  sprayings  cost 
about  $8.25  per  acre  for  spraying  materials.  Labor  and  wear  on  machine, 
repairs,  depreciation  in  value  of  the  machine,  and  miscellaneous  extras  cost 
close  to  $7  per  acre  for  the  season,  allowing  for  three  sprayings.  These  costs 
are  based  on  the  use  of  a  power  sprayer  under  normal  vineyard  conditions. 

In  1914  the  experiment  work  for  the  control  of  the  grape  berry  worm 
was  more  extensive  than  in  the  year  previous,  as  the  Dover  Fruit  Growers' 
Association  cooperated  with  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  following  as  closely 
as  possible  the  program  laid  out  by  the  author.  This  permitted  the  testing 
out  in  a  practical  way  of  the  best  results  obtained  in  the  experimental  plot 
work  of  previous  years.  The  different  members  of  the  association  followed 
the  program  laid  out  as  as  closely  as  they  could  under  their  circumstances. 
The  results  obtained  were  commensurate  with  their  thoroughness  in  spray- 
ing and  caring  for  their  grapes.  Four  cooperators  obtained  results  approxi- 
mating 2  to  3  per  cent  of  wormy  grapes  in  vineyards,  where  on  the  previous 
year  the  crop  was  more  than  half  wormy.  Un  sprayed  rows  in  these  vine- 
yards had  more  than  60  per  cent  wormy  berries  in  the  latter  part  of  Septem- 
ber. In  every  vineyard  where  it  was  sprayed  one  or  more  times,  the  number 
of  wormy  grapes  was  much  less  than  in  the  unsprayed  sections. 

Some  of  the  cooperators  put  on  only  the  second  spraying,  about  ten  to 
twelve  days  after  the  grapes  bloomed,  and  some  put  on  only  the  third  or 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  231 

last  spraying  in  the  latter  part  of  July.  Wherever  the  July  spraying  was 
carefully  applied  the  percentage  of  wormy  grapes  was  greatly  reduced,  the 
results  averaging  only  11  to  12  per  cent  of  wormy  berries.  In  nearby  un- 
sprayed  vineyards  from  32  to  64  per  cent  of  the  crop  was  wormy  and  the 
total  weight  of  merchantable  grapes  reduced  from  one-third  to  one-half. 

The  experiment  plots  near  Euclid,  Ohio,  were  part  of  a  vineyard  of 
some  seventeen  or  eighteen  acres.  Each  plot  consisted  of  about  two-thirds 
of  an  acre  thoroughly  sprayed  with  its  particular  kind  of  spray. 

The  soil  throughout  these  plots  is  similar  and  the  cultivation  and  soil 
fertilization  were  practically  the  same,  but  the  slope  varied  slightly.  The 
infestation  of  berry  moth  the  season  previous  was  also  fairly  uniform 
throughout  the  vineyard,  so  gave  promise  of  a  similar  condition  in  1914. 
The  set  of  grapes  was  much  heavier  than  in  1913,  and  this  usually  means 
that  the  grape  crop  will  not  average  quite  so  wormy  as  on  years  when  the 
set  is  extremely  light. 

In  1914,  various  combinations  of  sprays  were  used  with  different  methods 
of  application.  Arsenate  of  lead  at  varying  strengths,  with  and  without 
Bordeaux,  with  and  without  soap  for  a  sticker  and  spreader.  Copperas,  or 
iron  sulphate,  with  lime  was  used  as  a  sticker,  spreader  and  fungicide  in 
combination  with  arsenate  of  lead  on  one  plot,  and  in  1914  flour  paste  was 
tested  as  a  spreader  and  sticker  for  the  arsenate  of  lead.  Syrup  or  cheap 
cooking  molasses  was  used  in  some  test  plots  in  1914,  in  the  late  July  spray- 
ing. In  a  few  cases  a  considerable  amount  of  injury  to  Ives  grapes  seemed 
to  be  due  to  the  use  of  cheap  molasses  for  a  sticker  and  spreader  with  the 
arsenate  of  lead.  The  plot  sprayed  with  this  material  was  also  more 
severely  injured  by  the  berry  worms  than  adjoining  plots  sprayed  with 
arsenate  of  lead,  Bordeaux  (2-3-50)  and  two  pounds  of  dissolved  soft  soap 
in  each  50  gallons.  The  plots  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead  and  soap  without 
Bordeaux  had  some  8  per  cent  less  of  wormy  grapes  than  where  molasses 
was  used,  hence  the  decided  advantage  of  using  soap,  with  the  poison,  as  a 
spreader  and  sticker. 

Check — Unsprayed. 

Number  of  bunches,  26;  sound  berries,  749;  wormy  berries,  373;  per 
cent  wormy,  33.2. 

Plot  1. 

Sprayed  June  9,  1914;  140  gallons  per  acre.  Arensate  of  lead,  2  pounds; 
copper  sulphate,  2  pounds;  lime,  3  pounds;  soft  soap,  2  pounds;  water,  50 
gallons. 

Sprayed  same  spray  June  24,  200  gallons  per  acre. 

Sprayed  July  31,  200  gallons  per  acre.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  soft 
soap,  2  pounds;  water,  50  gallons.  Added  nicotine  sulphate,  1  part  to  1,000, 
for  leaf  hoppers. 

Counted  September  14,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  19;  sound  berries, 
1,004;  wormy  berries,  22;  per  cent  wormy,  2.14. 

Plot  2. 

Sprayed  June  9,  1914;  140  gallons  per  acre.  Arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds; 
soft  soap,  2  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 


232  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

Sprayed  June  24,  200  gallons  per  acre,  same  material. 

Sprayed  July  30,  200  gallons  per  acre.    Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  soap, 

2  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  15,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  23;  sound  berries, 
1,005;  wormy  berries,  77;  per  cent  wormy,  7.1. 

Plot  3. 

Sprayed  June  10,  1914.  Arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  2 
pounds;  lime,  3  pounds;  molasses,  2  gallons;  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  26.    Same  spray,  except  200  gallons  per  acre. 

Sprayed  July  30,  200  gallons  per  acre.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds; 
molasses,  iy2  gallons;  water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  15,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  23;  sound  berries, 
955;  wormy  berries,  111;  per  cent  wormy,  10.4. 

Plot  4. 

Sprayed  June  10,  1914;  140  gallons  per  acre.  Arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds; 
copperas,  4  pounds;  lime,  4  pounds;  soft  soap,  2  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  24.     Same  spray,  except  200  gallons  per  acre. 

Sprayed  July  29,  200  gallons  per  acre.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  soft 
soap,  2  pounds;  nicotine  sulphate,  1  part  in  800;  water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  15,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  26;  sound  berries, 
1,149;  wormy  berries,  54;  per  cent  wormy,  4.49. 

Plot  5. 
Sprayed  June  10,  140  gallons  per  acre.    Arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds;  lime, 

3  pounds;  soft  soap,  2  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  2  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Sprayed  June  25.     Same  spray. 

Sprayed  July  29.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3  pounds;  copper  sulphate,  2  pounds; 
lime,  3  pounds;  soft  soap,  2  pounds;  water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  15,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  29;  sound  berries, 
1,186;  wormy  berries,  24;  per  cent  wormy,  1.98. 

Plot  6. 

Same  treatment  as  Plot  5,  except  treatments  were  made  by  directing  the 
nozzles  by  hand. 

Sprayed  June  11  and  July  29,  1914.  Used  approximately  110-135-160 
gallons  per  acre  in  the  different  sprayings. 

Counted  September  14,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  27;  sound  berries, 
1,264;  wormy  berries,  11;  per  cent  wormy,  .86. 

Plot  6A. 

Same  spray  as  Plot  5.  Sprayed  June  25  and  June  29,  1914.  Used  135-160 
gallons  per  acre  in  the  respective  sprayings. 

Counted  September  14,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  28;  sound  berries, 
1,251;  wormy  berries,  27;  per  cent  wormy,  2.1. 

Plot  6B. 

Sprayed  once,  July  29,  1914;  160  gallons  per  acre.  Arsenate  of  lead,  3 
pounds;  copper  sulphate,  2  pounds;  lime,  3  pounds;  soft  soap,  2  pounds; 
water,  50  gallons. 

Counted  September  14,  1914.  Number  of  bunches,  29;  sound  berries, 
1,237;  wormy  berries,  18;  per  cent  wormy,  1.43. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


233 


Fig.  7.     Machine-sprayed,  1914.    Less  than  two  per  cent  wormy. 


Fig.  8.     Unsprayed,  1914.     Thirty-three  per  cent  wormy. 


Referring  to  the  illustrations,  the  value  of  the  different  sprays  can 
readily  be  determined.  Plots  1,  5,  6,  6A  and  6B  all  show  the  value  of  weak 
Bordeaux  and  soap  in  combination  with  arsenate  of  lead.  Plot  2  has  the 
Bordeaux  omitted  and  has  over  7  per  cent  of  wormy  grapes;  Plot  3  has 
molasses  instead  of  soap  for  the  sticker  and  spreader,  with  over  10  per  cent 
of  wormy  berries;  Plot  4  has  copperas  instead  of  blue  vitrol  with  4.49  per 
cent  of  the  wormy  berries.  All  of  these  applications  were  made  with  a  power 
sprayer  at  200  pounds  pressure,  using  special  spars  for  all  the  work  except- 
ing the  hand  sprayed  plots. 


234 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


Fig.  9.     Sprayed. 


Fig.  10.     Unsprayed. 


Fig.  11.     Left — Barrel  from  unsprayed  row. 
Right — Barrels  from  sprayed  row. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


235 


In  the  sprayed  plots,  one  spraying  by  hand  in  late  July  had  only  1.43  per 
cent  wormy  berries;  where  two  hand  applications  were  made  2.1  per  cent  of 
the  grapes  were  wormy,  and  where  three  hand  sprayings  were  given  only 
.86  per  cent  of  the  harvested  crop  was  wormy.  Where  the  same  spray  was 
applied  with  special  fixed  spars,  making  three  applications  during  the  season, 
1.98  per  cent  of  the  crop  was  wormy.  Comparing  the  results  of  previous 
years  in  similar  experiments,  these  fixed  spars  approach  hand  spraying  in 
thoroughness,  with  a  considerable  saving  in  the  labor  cost  of  applying 
the  spray. 


Fig.  12.     Stage  of  bunches  at  which  to  spray. 


Two  thorough  applications  given  at  proper  times  will  control  the  berry 
worm.  The  first  application  should  be  given  just  after  the  grapes  bloom, 
taking  Concords  as  the  standard  variety,  and  a  second  heavy,  thorough 
spraying  six  or  seven  weeks  later,  usually  about  the  first  week  in  August 
in  Northern  Ohio.  These  sprayings  just  precede  the  hatching  time  of  the 
grape  berry  moth  eggs  and  the  newly  hatched  larvae  find  a  meal  of  poison 
awaiting  them  if  the  grapes  are  properly  sprayed.  Gathering  the  anchored 
leaves  in  the  soil,  upon  which  the  berry  worms  have  spun  up  in  the  fall, 
and  destroying  them,  will  also  assist  materially  in  controlling  the  pest;  also 
plowing  in  May  will  crush  many  of  the  pupae  and  bury  them  so  deep  that 
emerging  moths  cannot  reach  the  surface. 


236 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


In  cases  of  severe  infestation,  careful  and  thorough  spraying  at  proper 
times  with  arsenate  of  lead,  4  to  6  pounds.  Bordeaux  (2-3-50)  and  dissolved 
soft  soap,  2  pounds,  is  a  necessity  for  controlling  the  grape  berry  worm. 


Fig.  13.     Cocoons  of  the  grape  berry  moth  on  leaf. 


REPOBT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  237 

TWO  DESTRUCTIVE  GRAPE  INSECTS  OF  THE 
APPALACHIAN  REGION. 

By  FRED  E.  BROOKS, 

Entomological  Assistant,  Deciduous  Fruit  Insect  Investigations, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Several  years  ago,  while  the  writer  was  connected  with  the  entomological 
department  of  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  he  was 
called  upon  to  investigate  severe  injuries  which  were  being  done  to  grapes 
in  various  parts  of  the  State  by  the  grape  curculio,  Craponius  inaequalis 
Say  and  the  grapevine  root-borer,  Memythrus  polistiformis  Harris.  The 
accounts  of  these  two  which  follow  are  based  very  largely  on  information 
obtained  at  that  time.  Both  species  are  prevalent  in  the  Appalachian  section 
although  neither  is  confined  exclusively  in  its  distribution  to  that  region  of 
the  United  States. 

THE  GRAPE  CURCULIO. 
Introduction. 

The  Grape  Curculio,  Craponius  inaequalis  Say,  is  a  small  snout-beetle, 
belonging  to  the  family  Curculionidae,  whose  larvae  develop  exclusively 
within  the  fruit  of  the  grape.  The  beetle  uses  its  snout  to  puncture  the  skin 
of  partially-grown  grapes  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  egg  within  a  small 
cavity  excavated  from  the  pulp  through  the  opening  in  the  skin.  The  larva 
hatching  from  the  egg  feeds  on  the  pulp  and  seeds  causing  the  fruit  to  drop 
prematurely. 

In  many  parts  of  the  Appalachian  region,  and  also  in  some  other  sections 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  grape  curculio  is  the  most  destructive  of  the 
insects  attacking  the  fruit  of  the  grape.  It  is  not  unusual,  in  some  localities 
at  least,  for  unprotected  vines  to  lose  100  per  cent  of  their  crop  from  this 
cause.  In  the  region  referred  to,  native  grapes  of  several  species  abound 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  wild  fruit  was  the  original  food  and  breeding 
place  of  the  insect.  The  wild  grapes  are  still  attacked  extensively  and  are 
a  source  from  which  beetles  are  produced  every  year  that  fly  to  nearby 
cutivated  vines  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  eggs.  Commercial  grape  grow- 
ing is  not  an  extensive  enterprise  at  many  points  within  the  region  under 
special  consideration  but  practically  every  home  is  supplied  with  vines  to 
furnish  fruit  for  family  use  and  there  are  numerous  small  vineyards  the 
products  of  which  supply  the  local  markets.  Many  of  these  growers  find  it 
necessary  every  year  to  protect  their  crop  in  some  way  against  partial  or 
entire  destruction  by  this  pest. 

Distribution. 

Most  of  the  observations  on  the  grape  curculio  made  by  the  writer  have 
been  in  West  Virginia,  but  the  species  has  been  recorded  as  occurring,  also, 
in  destructive  numbers  in  certain  parts  of  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Missouri 
and  Arkansas.  For  some  reason,  which  has  not  been  fully  explained,  the 


238 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


insect  is  apt  to  be  only  locally  abundant  within  the  area  of  its  known 
distribution.  It  has  been  noticed  frequently  that  grapes  in  one  locality  may 
suffer  greatly  every  year  while  in  other  localities,  not  far  distant,  injury  will 
scarcely  be  noticeable.  Probably  the  presence  or  absence  in  a  given  locality 
of  wild  grapes,  in  which  the  curculios  breed,  has  much  to  do  with  this 
irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  the  pest. 

LIFE   HISTORY. 
The   Egg  and  Oviposition. 

In  the  latitude  of  central  West  Virginia  the  adult  grape  curculio,  which 
is  a  small,  brown,  inconspicuous  beetle,  appears  in  the  spring  upon  the  foliage 
of  grape  vines,  usually  during  the  latter  part  of  the  month  of  May.  The  time 
the  beetles  first  make  their  appearance  corresponds  rather  closely  with  the 
blooming  of  the  grape.  Late  in  June,  when  Concord  grapes  are  about  one- 
fourth  grown,  the  beetles  begin  to  oviposit  in  the  fruit. 

The  egg  is  oval  in  shape,  its  dimensions  being  about  .015  by  .022  inch. 
The  color  is  translucent  white  changing  to  yellowish  as  incubation  advances. 

In  depositing  her  eggs  the  female  makes  use  of  her  slender  snout,  upon 
the  point  of  which  the  mouth  is  situated,  to  form  a  small  opening  in  the  skin 
of  the  fruit.  She  then  eats  out  a  cavity  in  the  pulp,  about  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  deposits  within  it  a  single  egg.  She  then  seals  the 
small  opening  in  the  skin  with  a  pellet  of  excrement,  evidently  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  the  egg  against  natural  enemies.  The  point  where  the  egg 
is  deposited  shows  as  a  discolored  and  slightly  depressed  spot  on  the  skin 
of  the  fruit.  The  spots  have  a  characteristic  appearance  and  often  furnish 
the  vineyardist  with  his  first  intimation  that  the  insect  is  present  on  his 
vines.  In  occasional  cases  where  the  eggs  fail  to  hatch  a  hard  tissue  forms 
around  the  egg-cavity  so  that  the  punctured  fruit  is  worthless  whether  or 
not  the  larva  develops. 


iiil 


Fig.  1. 


Egg  puncture  of  grape  curculio.     Two  left,  punctured, 
uninjured. 


Two  right, 


The  females  deposit  on  an  average  something  over  250  eggs  each,  and, 
until  all  available  grapes  are  occupied,  the  beetle  will  usually  select  a  sound 
fruit  for  each  egg.  The  egg-laying  period  begins  late  in  June  and  continues 
for  about  eighty  days.  A  single  female  may  deposit  as  many  as  fourteen 
eggs  in  a  single  day.  The  eggs  deposited  at  the  beginning  of  the  season 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


239 


may  develop  into  mature  insects  that  will  themselves  produce  eggs  before 
the  parent  beetles  have  ceased^  to  oviposit.  Most  of  the  eggs  produced  by 
this  second  brood,  however,  are  infertile.  The  eggs  hatch  in  from  four  to 
seven  days,  according  to  temperature,  the  average  being  about  six  days. 


Fig.  2.     (a)    (Larva;   (b)   Posterior  tip  of  larva;   (c)  Egg  (greatly  enlarged); 

(d)  Grape  berry,  showing  egg  puncture;    (e)  Egg  in  situ  under 

skin  of  grape  berry. 

The  Larva. 

The  larva  of  the  grape  curculio  is  a  small,  legless  grub,  slightly  over  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  which  in  color  is  white  with  a  brown  head.  The 
body  has  a  sparse  clothing  of  very  fine,  short  hairs. 


Fig.  3.     Larvae  grape  curculio. 

The  young  larva  begins  to  feed  on  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  before  it  is  free 
from  the  shell.  Within  three  or  four  days  it  attacks  the  seed  and  thereafter 
may  be  found  feeding  on  either  the  seed  or  the  pulp  so  long  as  it  remains  in 
the  grape.  When  full  grown  it  forms  a  small  hole  through  the  skin  of  the 
fruit  through  which  it  escapes.  As  soon  as  it  leaves  the  grape  it  becomes 
exposed  to  ants  and  other  enemies  and  it  hurries  under  cover  with  all 
possible  speed.  Usually,  it  crawls  beneath  a  lump  of  earth,  a  small  stone 
or  fallen  leaves,  or,  if  the  ground  is  soft,  it  will  work  its  way  beneath  the 
soil  for  a  short  distance.  When  it  chances  upon  ground  that  is  solid  and 
free  from  any  small  objects  beneath  which  it  may  find  protection,  it  will 
gather  grains  of  earth  and  sand  and  form  its  cocoon  en  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Most  of  the  larvae  leave  the  fruit  early  in  the  morning. 

The  larvae  require  about  two  weeks  in  which  to  attain  full  growth.  Twr 
or  three  larvae  may  develop  within  one  grape  but  usually  only  one  is  found. 


240 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Since  several  eggs  are  often  deposited  in  a  single  fruit,  it  is  probable  that 
cannibalism  is  practiced  by  the  older  and  stronger  individuals.  Most  of  the 
larvae  leave  the  fruit  during  the  months  of  July  and  August;  however,  a 
few  continue  to  issue  up  to  the  last  of  September. 


Pupa. 


The  Pupa. 

The  pupa  is  a  delicate,  white  form  of  the  insect,  which  is  intermediate 
between  the  larval  and  adult  stages.  It  occupies  a  globular-shaped  cocoon 
composed  of  grains  of  sand  and  earth  held  together  by  silk.  The  cocoon 
may  be  formed  under  any  convenient  object  lying  on  the  ground  or  it  may 


Pig.  5.     Cocoons  of  grape  curculio. 

be  placed  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil  or  in  an  exposed  position  on 
the  ground.  The  insect  remains  in  the  cocoon  undergoing  transformation 
anywhere  from  thirteen  to  twenty-three  days,  the  greatest  numbers  emerg- 
ing as  beetles  on  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  days. 


The  Adult. 

The  adult  grape  curculio  is  a  small,  robust  snout-beetle  which  measures, 
exclusive  of  the  snout,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length.  When  the  beetle 
first  issues  from  the  cocoon  it  is  black  with  a  grayish  cast  imparted  by  a 
sparse  covering  of  minute  white  hairs.  Within  a  few  days  the  black  ground 
color  fades  to  dark  brown.  The  beetles  are  inconspicuous  and  are  not  often 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  241 

noticed  by  a  casual  observer,  even  where  they  are  abundant.  They  spend 
much  of  their  time  feeding  or  resting  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  grape 
leaves  and  it  is  in  this  position  that  they  may  be  observed  most  readily. 


I 

Fig.  6.     Adult  (x!2). 

They  are  quite  shy  and  when  disturbed  are  apt  to  leap  vigorously  and  take 
wing  before  alighting.  When  captured  and  confined  closely  in  the  hand,  they 
gives  forth  a  distinct  squeaking  sound,  a  peculiarity  which  sometimes  serves 
to  distinguish  the  beetle  from  a  lump  of  clay  or  a  pellet  of  excrement  dropped 
by  a  large  caterpillar. 


Fig.  7.     Adults  depositing  eggs. 

The  beetles  feed  freely  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  and 
the  bark  of  the  fruit  stems.  The  female,  also,  devours  the  tissues  removed 
from  the  fruit  in  excavating  her  egg-chamber.  In  feeding  on  the  foliage  only 
the  green,  upper  layer  of  the  leaf  is  removed.  The  mark  on  the  leaf  made 
in  feeding  is  somewhat  circular  in  form  and  is  composed  of  distinctive  zig- 
zag lines  with  minute  transverse  ridges.  The  spots  vary  in  size  and  shape 
but  average  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  From  the  practical 
standpoint  of  the  vineyardist,  the  habit  of  feeding  on  the  foliage  is  of  great 
importance,  since  it  makes  it  possible  to  destroy  the  beetles  very  readily  by 
spraying  the  vines  with  arsenicals. 

The  beetles  issue  from  hibernation  in  the  spring  several  weeks  before 
egg-laying  begins.  They  are  rather  inactive  when  they  first  appear  but  food 
is  taken  from  the  leaves  about  as  soon  as  they  ascend  the  vines.  Thereafter, 
throughout  the  season,  the  peculiar  feeding  marks  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  leaves  increase  in  numbers  and  conspicuousness.  Where  the  insects  are 


242 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


abundant  the  foliage  in  the  fall  presents  a  specked  appearance  that  is  very 
noticeable. 

A  few  individuals  of  the  hibernating  brood  of  beetles  live  and  remain 
upon  the  vines  until  as  late  in  the  season  as  the  first  of  October.  Most  of 
the  beetles,  however,  that  are  to  be  seen  on  the  vines  during  the  fall  months 
belong  to  a  new  brood  that  begins  to  appear  in  July.  These  young  beetles 
may  be  distinguished  for  a  while  from  those  of  the  old  brood  by  their 
darker  color  and  fresh  appearance.  They  feed  freely  on  the  foliage  and 
deposit  a  few  eggs  which  are  mostly  infertile. 

With  the  coming  of  cold  weather  they  leave  the  vines  and  hibernate, 
probably  under  objects  of  various  kinds  that  they  may  find  scattered  on  the 
ground.  It  is  possible  a  few  beetles  remain  in  the  cocoon  over  winter  and 
emerge  in  the  spring.  As  previously  stated,  the  beetles  reappear  on  the  vines 
during  the  month  of  May,  or,  at  about  the  time  grape  vines  are  in  bloom. 

Natural    Enemies. 

Two  hymenopterous  parasites,  Bracon  mellitor  Say  and  Stiboscopus 
brooksi  Ashm.,  commonly  attack  the  grape  curculio.  The  former  destroys 
the  larva  while  in  the  grape  and  the  latter  attacks  and  devours  the  larva  or 
pupa  while  in  the  cocoon.  Ants  and  other  predacious  insects  destroy  many 
of  the  larvae,  especially  at  the  time  they  are  leaving  the  fruit  to  pupate. 

Methods  of  Control. 

As  has  already  been  suggested,  the  application  of  arsenical  poisons  to  the 
foliage  of  the  grape  is  an  effective  method  of  destroying  the  adult  grape 
curculio.  The  most  satisfactory  time  to  apply  the  poison  is  in  the  spring 


Fig.  8.     Grapes  protected  by  paper  bags. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  243 

after  the  beetles  have  appeared  on  the  vines  and  before  oviposition  has 
begun.  The  poison  may  well  be  applied  in  the  form  of  a  spray  and  can  be 
combined  with  materials  used  against  other  insects  and  diseases  that  are 
commonly  injurious  to  the  grape.  The  first  application  in  the  spring  should 
be  made  soon  after  the  fruit  has  set  and  this  may  be  followed  up,  if  neces- 
sary, with  other  applications  at  intervals  of  two  weeks.  The  young  beetles 
may  be  killed  by  spraying  in  August  or  September.  Thorough  spraying  can 
be  depended  upon  to  almost  entirely  prevent  injury  to  the  fruit  by  this  insect. 

Enclosing  the  bunches  of  grapes  in  two-pound  or  three-pound  paper  bags 
soon  after  the  blossoms  have  disappeared  will  exclude  the  beetles  and  insure 
perfect  fruit.  In  placing  the  bags  they  should  be  opened  and  slipped  over  the 
young  clusters  and  the  mouth  folded  and  pinned  around  the  stems.  If 
properly  done,  the  bags  will  stay  in  place  until  the  fruit  is  ripe.  This 
method  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  on  a  large  scale  except  in  cases  where 
fancy  fruit  is  desired  regardless  of  cost.  It  may  be  practiced  in  a  small 
way  with  excellent  results.  One  person  should,  with  a  little  practice,  place 
from  1,000  to  2,000  bags  in  a  day. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  vineyards  undoubtedly  destroys  many  of 
the  curculios  while  they  are  undergoing  transformation  within  the  cocoon. 
The  beetles  may  be  collected  with  fair  success  early  in  the  morning  or  on 
cool  days  by  jarring  or  shaking  the  vines  over  sheets  spread  on  the  ground. 

Whatever  method  of  control  is  adopted,  it  is  frequently  advisable  to 
supplement  the  work  by  the  cutting  out  of  all  wild  and  worthless  grape  vines 
that  may  be  growing  near  the  cultivated  vines.  Such  wild  vines  frequently 
serve  as  breeding  places  for  the  beetles  and  should  either  be  sprayed  with 
as  much  care  as  the  vineyards  or  destroyed. 

THE    GRAPEVINE    ROOT-BORER. 
Introduction. 

The  grapevine  root-borer,  Memythrus  polistiformis  Harris,  belongs  to  a 
family  of  moths  (Aegeriidae)  which  is  represented  in  this  country  by  several 
well  known  and  destructive  species.  The  larvae  of  various  members  of  the 
group  are  commonly  designated  as  "borers"  on  account  of  their  habit  of 
burrowing  through  the  bark,  stems,  wood  and  roots  of  plants.  The  different 
species  of  the  family  attack  a  great  variety  of  valuable  trees  and  smaller 
plants  that  grow  in  the  garden,  orchard  and  forest.  The  grapevine  root- 
borer  is  not  so  well  known  generally  as  the  nearly  allied  peach  borers, 
squash  vine  borer,  and  some  other  members  of  the  group.  This  is  due  in  part 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  at  present  so  widely  and  abundantly  distributed  as 
the  other  species  mentioned  and  in  part  to  its  habits  of  concealment  during 
the  four  stages  which  comprise  its  life  cycle. 

The  eggs  are  small  and  inconspicuous  and  can  be  found  only  by  careful 
search,  even  in  badly  infested  vineyards;  the  larvae  feed  in  the  roots  beneath 
the  ground  and  throw  no  castings  to  the  surface  as  an  indication  of  their 
presence;  the  pupa  occupies  an  earth-covered  cocoon  in  the  soil;  and  the 
adult  simulates  so  closely  in  form  and  flight  the  common  wasps  of  the 
genus  Polistes,  that  the  casual  observer  does  not  recognize  it  as  a  moth.  It 
thus  happens  frequently  that  a  vineyard  will  be  quite  badly  infested  by  this 
insect  while  the  owner  remains  entirely  unaware  of  its  presence. 


244  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

The  injury  to  the  vine  is  done  by  the  larva,  or  borer,  burrowing  through 
the  roots,  the  attack  usually  being  made  a  foot  or  more  out  from  the  center 
of  the  root  system.  Badly  infested  vines  will  have  all  or  most  of  the  main 
roots  killed  except  stubs  at  the  base  a  foot  or  so  in  length.  These  root-stubs 
will  afford  the  vine  a  sufficient  hold  in  the  soil  to  retain  life  but  will  not 
permit  it  to  make  a  satisfactory  growth  or  produce  a  normal  crop  of  fruit. 
Vines  may  thus  become  stunted  and  unprofitable  without  presenting  any 
external  symptoms  whereby  the  vineyardist  can  determine  the  cause  of  the 
trouble. 

Distribution. 

The  grapevine  root-borer  is  native  to  North  America  and  is  especially 
destructive  in  certain  localities  of  the  Appalachian  region  of  the  United 
States.  The  species  is  known  to  occur  as  far  west  as  Missouri,  but  the  most 
severe  injury  to  grape  vines  has  been  reported  from  West  Virginia  and 
Kentucky.  It  is  probable  that  this  borer  attacks  all  varieties  and  species  of 
cultivated  and  wild  grapes  that  grow  within  its  range.  In  the  vineyard  the 
insect  shows  no  preference  for  particular  varieties. 

LIFE   HISTORY. 
The  Egg  and  Oviposition. 

In  the  latitude  of  West  Virginia  the  adult  moths  appear  during  the  latter 
part  of  July  and  remain  on  the  wing  for  two  or  three  weeks.  Observations 
made  by  the  writer  show  that  the  females  issue  from  the  cocoon  early  in 
the  day,  fertilization,  as  a  rule,  takes  place  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day 
and  egg-laying  begins  on  the  following  day. 

The  egg  is  oval  in  outline,  slightly  flattened,  with  one  face  evenly  convex 
and  the  other  marked  through  the  center  with  a  deep  longitudinal  furrow  or 
groove,  the  shape  of  the  egg  being  not  unlike  that  of  a  grain  of  coffee.  The 
length  is  slightly  less  than  .04  inch  and  the  width  about  .025  inch.  The  color 
is  chocolate  brown,  the  surface  being  finely  and  densely  punctured  and 


Fig.  9.     Larvae  of  the  grapevine  root-borer  attacking  a  root. 

marked  with  a  network  of  delicate  lines.  Eggs  are  deposited  singly,  or 
rarely  in  pairs,  upon  the  leaves  or  stems  of  weeds,  blades  of  grass,  straw  or 
any  plants  that  may  be  growing  or  lying  beneath  the  vines.  Occasionally 
they  are  placed  upon  the  leaves  or  canes  of  the  grape  vines.  The  mo  to. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  245 

no  inclination  to  place  her  eggs,  on  or  in  close  proximity  to  the  base  of  the 
cane,  but  scatters  them  about  promiscuously  over  a  space  twenty  feet  or 
more  in  diameter  surrounding  the  vine.  The  eggs  are  very  insecurely 
attached  and  practically  all  of  them  fall  to  the  ground  before  hatching. 

About  400  eggs  are  laid,  on  an  average,  by  each  female,  and  the  eggs 
require  about  three  weeks  in  which  to  hatch. 


The  Larva. 

The  larva  is  a  whitish  grub  with  a  brown  head  which  attains,  when  full 
grown,  a  length  of  about  1%  inches.  The  body  is  rather  slender,  distinctly 
segmented  and  has  a  sparse  covering  of  short,  s.tiff  hairs.  It  is  in  the  larval 
stage  alone  that  the  insect  is  capable  of  injuring  the  vine. 

When  the  borers  first  appear  from  the  egg  they  are  only  about  1/25  of 

an  inch  in  length.  The  egg,  as  has  been  explained,  is  on  the  ground  at  the 
time  of  hatching  and  when  the  borers  issue  from  the  eggs  they  burrow  at 
once  into  the  soil.  There  they  move  about  until  chance  leads  them  to  a 
grape  root,  which,  when  found,  they  attack  at  once.  The  little  borers  are 
capable  of  living  in  the  soil  for  several  days  without  food,  but  it  seems 
probable  that  many  of  them  die  in  a  fruitless  search  for  a  suitable  root  from 
which  to  obtain  nourishment.  In  arriving  at  the  root  in  this  way,  many  of  the 
borers  enter  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  vine  and  leave  a  section  of 
the  main  part  of  the  root  uninjured.  The  writer  found  one  borer  that  had 
evidently  penetrated  eleven  inches  of  solid  clay  soil  and  had  entered  the 
root  at  a  point  nine  feet  out  from  the  vine. 

The  young  borer,  after  finding  a  suitable  root,  first  eats  a  hole  through 
the  bark  and  then  excavates  an  irregular  burrow,  which,  at  first,  is  confined 
to  the  softer  portions  of  the  bark.  In  the  beginning  the  burrow  may  encircle 
the  root  several  times,  but  later,  as  the  borer  increases  in  size,  it  is  made  to 
run  with  the  grain  of  the  wood  and  may  extend  either  away  from  or  toward 
the  base  of  the  root.  After  the  borers  have  been  feeding  several  months 
their  burrows  are  so  large  that  in  roots  half  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter  all 
the  solid  part  of  the  root  is  converted  into  frass  and  only  a  thin  membrane  of 
the  outer  bark  remains  intact.  In  larger  roots  the  burrow  will  frequently 
include  all  the  wood  on  one  side  of  the  heart  and  is  most  likely  to  extend 
along  the  under  side  of. the  root. 

The  habit  of  the  borer  of  feeding  so  far  out  on  the  root  makes  the 
practice  of  "worming"  with  a  knife  and  wire  impracticable.  It  has  the 
advantage,  however,  of  often  leaving  a  stub  of  sound  root  to  help  sustain 
the  vine.  Often  a  root  will  be  found  completely  severed  by  the  borers  and  at 
the  wounded  end  of  the  remaining  stub  a  vigorous  growth  of  young  roots 
will  be  developing.  Such  severe  root  pruning  lessens  very  greatly  the  feed- 
ing area  of  the  root  system  and  reduces  the  vigor  and  productivity  of  the  vine. 

The  borer  probably  remains  in  the  root  for  a  period  of  twenty-one  or 
twenty-two  months,  the  time  including  two  winters.  The  first  winter  it  evi- 
dently feeds  more  or  less  during  mild  weather  but  remains  inactive  during 
the  second  winter  within  a  silk-lined  hibernaculum  located  in  the  burrow. 


246 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Fig.  10.     Various  stages  of  the  Grapevine  root-borer. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  247 

The  Pupa. 

When  the  larva  is  full  grown  and  ready  to  change  to  the  pupal  form, 
it  leaves  the  root  and  ascends  in  a  more  or  less  direct  course  to  within  about 
an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Here  it  constructs  a  rough,  elongate 
cocoon,  of  an  average  length  of  about  one  inch.  The  cocoon  is  composed 
outwardly  of  grains  of  earth  mixed  with  the  borer's  excrement  and  is  lined 
with  tough  silk.  The  borer  transforms  within  this  cocoon  to  a  pupa  of 
dark  brown  color  with  several  narrow  yellow  bands  encircling  the  abdomen. 
When  ready  to  change  to  the  adult  insect  the  pupa  works  half  its  length  out 
of  the  cocoon  and  the  moth  escapes  through  a  slit  in  the  back.  'The  discarded 
pupa  case  is  left  with  one  end  inserted  in  the  cocoon  and  the  other  projecting 
a  short  distance  above  the  ground.  The  pupa  stage  covers  a  period  of  four 
or  five  weeks. 

The  Adult. 

The  adult  grapevine  root-borer  is  a  handsome  moth,  the  sexes  of  which 
differ  considerably  in  size  and  appearance.  The  males  vary  from  five-eighths 
to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length  and  from  one  inch  to  one  and  one-eighth 
inches  in  expanse.  The  females  are  larger,  measuring  about  seven-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  length  by  one  and  one-half  inches  in  expanse.  The  general 
color  of  both  sexes  is  dark,  lustrous  brown.  There  are  bands  of  orange  and 
lemon-yellow  scales  encircling  the  abdomen  and  spots  of  similar  colored 
scales  at  the  base  of  the  wings.  As  the  moths  grow  old  and  worn  with  flight 
these  bright  colors  fade  or  disappear. 

During  the  investigation  of  this  species  moths  were  first  seen  on  the 
wing  on  July  24th  and  for  about  fifteen  days  thereafter  they  were  abundant. 
The  males  appeared  a  few  days  in  advance  of  the  females  and  during  the 
period  of  their  flight  were  more  abundant  than  those  of  the  other  sex. 

The  moth  in  its  color,  structure  and  flight  resembles  very  closely  the 
common  stinging  wasps  of  the  genus  Polistes.  Both  sexes  have  a  habit  of 
alighting  on  some  object  and  fluttering  their  wings  with  an  angry,  buzzing 
sound  which  adds  very  greatly  to  their  formidable  appearance.  They  are 
active  by  day  and  oviposition  takes  place  only  during  the  brighter  part  of  the 
day.  usually  from  9  a.  m.  to  4  p.  m. 

Natural   Enemies. 

The  larva  of  one  of  our  common  firefly  insects,  Photuris  pennsylvanica, 
was  found  devouring  a  pupa  of  the  grapevine  root-borer.  The  crested  fly- 
catcher. Myiarchus  crinitus,  a  common  bird  in  the  locality  where  the  investi- 
gation was  made,  was  observed  to  be  feeding  rather  extensively  on  the 
moths  as  they  flew  about,  the  vines. 

Methods  of  Control. 

This  borer  will  be  found  to  be  a  difficult  pest  to  deal  with.  Methods 
which  are  used  with  success  against  several  species  of  fruit  tree  borers  are 
not  applicable  to  the  grapevine  root-borer.  The  digging  out  process,  protect- 
ing the  trunks  with  mechanical  appliances  and  paints  and  washes  cannot 
be  recommended  for  the  present  species.  Its  habits  of  burrowing  down 


248  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

through  the  soil  to  the  root  on  which  it  feeds  precludes  any  method  of 
repelling  or  destroying  the  borers  at  the  base  of  the  canes.  It  is  also  doubt- 
ful if  anything  can  be  hoped  for  from  immune  varieties. 

The  use  of  fumigants  in  the  soil  about  infested  vines  has  probably 
not  been  tried  for  this  species,  but  some  of  the  borers  might  be  destroyed  in 
this  way.  Thorough  cultivation  of  vineyards  during  the  months  of  June  and 
July  may  be  depended  upon  to  destroy  many  of  the  insects  while  they  are  in 
the  cocoons  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  undergoing  transformation. 


THE  ENGINEER'S  PART  IN  THE  ADVANCEMENT   OF  THE 

VITICULTURAL  INDUSTRY. 

By  E.  T.  MEAKIN, 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 


The  engineer  is  very  often  overlooked  when  thinking  or  speaking  about 
viticulture,  so  that  in  presenting  his  side  of  the, causes  of  advancement  in 
this  important  industry  to  you,  gentlemen,  he  asks  for  your  indulgence. 

The  first  engineer  who  was  called  upon  for  help  was  probably  a  poor 
country  blacksmith,  who  was  asked  to  make  a  device  for  digging  up  the 
ground  so  that  the  vines  could  be  planted.  This  was  some  time  back  about 
550  B.  C.,  and  at  that  time  he  did  not  realize  that  his  ingenuity  was  called 
upon  at  all. 

The  next  engineer  called  upon  was  probably  a  farmer,  who  had  to  devise 
a  way  of  getting  the  juice  from  the  berries  after  they  had  been  pulled  off 
the  vines.  The  first  method  devised  has  not  been  recorded,  but  certainly 
this  part  of  the  business  has  received  considerable  attention  from  engineers 
from  that  date  down  to  the  present  time. 

To  attempt  to  enumerate  all  the  various  devices  that  have  been  engi- 
neered for  this  part  of  the  business  would  be  impossible. 

The  earliest  type  of  a  grape  crusher  of  which  we  have  any  record  was 
a  hollow  stone,  the  same  as  they  used  to  grind  corn,  the  grapes  being  thrown 
into  the  bowl  and  the  juice  being  pounded  out  with  another  stone;  the  juice 
was  then  collected  and  stored  in  goat  skins. 

We  also  find  the  early  wine  makers  used  the  old  arastra  as  a  means  of 
crushing  their  grapes,  the  grapes  being  thrown  in  front  of  a  wheel  which  was 
fastened  to  a  central  revolving  post  and  drawn  around  a  circular  pan  by  a 
team  of  oxen,  the  wheel  crushing  all  the  grapes  that  were  in  its  path,  thus 
freeing  the  juice,  which  was  collected,  usually  in  earthenware  jars  or  bowls. 

Later  we  have  a  long  trough  about  18  inches  deep  and  six  feet  long  into 
which  the  grapes  were  thrown,  and  men  or  women  removing  their  footwear, 
stepped  into  the  box  and  tramped  out  the  juice  from  the  grapes.  This  was 
a  form  of  a  crusher  and  press,  and  this  same  device  is  used  in  many  places 
at  the  present  time  and  with  it  they  make  the  real  genuine  foot  juice. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  249 

These  early  engineering  methods  of  crushing  grapes,  set  the  juice  of  the 
grapes  free  from  the  skins,  but  soon  it  was  realized  that  the  free  juice  was 
only  a  part  of  the  whole  juice  of  the  grape,  and  then  engineers  set  about 
different  ways  of  extracting  the  balance  remaining  in  the  fruit. 

The  methods  of  pressing  the  grapes  were  more  numerous  than  those 
used  for  crushing.  One  of  the  earliest  on  record  was  to  take  the  crushed 
berries,  lay  them  in  an  old  goat  skin,  punch  it  full  of  small  holes  and  twist 
the  ends  together.  The  same  method  is  used  by  the  housewife  in  making 
her  jellies  at  the  present  time.  She,  however,  does  not  use  the  goat  skin, 
but  a  cotton  bag. 

Another  method  was  to  take  straw,  weave  it  into  a  mat,  lay  the  berries 
in  the  mat  on  a  flat  stone,  place  logs  on  top  of  the  mat  and  pile  up  stones 
on  top  of  the  logs,  the  weight  causing  the  juice  to  flow  from  the  berries, 
which  usually  was  gathered  in  earthenware  jars.  The  next  step  was  to 
select  a  tree  with  a  forked  branch  pointing  downwards,  cut  down  another 
tree  to  make  a  pole,  fastening  the  pole  at  one  end  under  the  fork,  thus  mak- 
ing the  old  log  press,  which  has  been  handed  down  from  the  ages,  modified 
in  some  details  as  the  times  advanced.  It  can  still  be  found  in  use  at  some 
of  the  old  wineries  at  the  present  time. 

The  early  engineers  did  not  have  to  do  their  work  according  to  union 
rules  and  regulations,  therefore  time  was  not  the  essence  of  their  require- 
ments, and  the  greatest  strides  in  the  development  of  the  viticultural  indus- 
try from  the  engineer's  standpoint  have  taken  place  within  our  own  age  or 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years. 

The  writer  had  occasion  to  visit  one  of  the  old  wineries  very  recently. 
The  owner  had  been  a  poor  boy  starting  as  a  stranger  in  a  strange  land 
without  money  or  friends,  and  had  amassed  a  very  large  fortune  before  his 
death.  His  place  was  supposed  to  be  the  best  equipped  winery  in  that  part  of 
country  when  he  died,  and  in  looking  over  the  different  devices  and  methods 
of  handling  his  products,  I  made  the  remark  that  if  the  place  was  given  free 
of  all  incumbrances  to  any  one  in  the  condition  in  which  he  left  it,  with  the 
understanding  that  they  were  to  operate  and  keep  it  running  without  altera- 
tion, that  they  would  starve  to  death  if  they  had  to  face  present  day 
competition. 

In  this  winery  were  the  two  old  systems  of  making  wine.  In  the  first 
apparatus  used  the  grapes  were  dumped  into  a  crusher  which  had  two 
wooden  rollers,  and  after  being  crushed  they  were  immediately  pressed  in  a 
small  hand  press  very  similar  to  those  used  as  family  cider  presses;  the 
juice  was  then  fermented  in  casks  or  barrels.  The  pomace  after  pressing 
was  fed  to  the  stock,  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  available  juice  being  re- 
moved. This  method  had  evidently  been  unsatisfactory,  because  later  the 
grapes  were  crushed  into  tanks,  the  crusher  being  placed  over  the  top,  and 
the  grapes,  including  stems,  were  crushed  into  these  tanks  and  there  allowed 
to  ferment,  being  removed  after  fermentation  had  taken  place,  to  have  the 
juice  remaining  in  the  pomace  pressed  out.  While  this  method  gave  more 
color  to  the  wine,  it  also  left  a  bitter  taste  which  was  not  there  under  the 
former  method  of  wine  making.  The  man  who  purchased  the  wine  liked  the 
color,  but  did  not  like  the  taste,  so  the  winemaker  called  upon  the  engineer 
to  find  out  which  part  of  the  grape  this  taste  came  from.  It  was  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  greatest  part  of  the  bitter  taste  was  caused  by  the  stems 


250  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

being  in  with  the  grapes  during  fermentation.  The  engineer  then  com- 
menced devising  ways  and  means  of  extracting  the  stems  from  the  grapes. 
One  of  these  early  machines  was  a  long  tray  set  on  an  inclined  plane  under 
the  crusher  rollers,  the  bottom  of  this  tray  being  made  out  of  woven  wire 
of  about  %-inch  mesh  and  the  tray  provided  with  a  rapid  shaking  motion. 
After  the  grapes  were  crushed  they  fell  on  to  this  tray,  and  the  loose  berries 
were  shaken  through  the  screen,  into  a  receptacle.  The  stems,  being  too 
large  to  pass  through  the  screen,  traveled  to  the  end  of  the  tray  and  dis- 
charged on  to  the  floor. 

While  this  machine  did  fairly  good  work,  it  was  very  wasteful,  a  very 
large  portion  of  the  grapes  clinging  to  the  stems  being  thrown  away.  This 
device  was  used  in  several  modified  forms  for  a  number  of  years. 

The  next  machine  made  for  stemming  grapes  had  a  long  wooden  cylinder 
about  four  feet  in  diameter  by  four  feet  long,  pegs  being  driven  outside  this 
cylinder  and  allowed  to  project  out  about  two  inches,  a  metal  spiral  being 
formed  between  these  pins  to  convey  the  grapes  towards  one  end.  This 
cylinder  revolved  inside  another  cylinder  made  of  iron  bars  placed  one- 
half  inch  apart,  a  square  opening  being  cut  in  the  outside  cylinder  at  one  end 
to  allow  the  grapes  to  fall  on  to  the  central  revolving  cylinder.  The  pins  on 
this  cylinder  pulling  in  the  grapes,  the  berries  were  torn  from  their  stems  by 
coming  in  contact  with  the  iron  bars,  the  spiral  being  fastened  on  to  the  inner 
cylinder  caused  the  stems  to  travel  outwards  while  the  grapes  passed  through 
the  bars,  some  whole  and  some  crushed.  These  machines  were  later  pro- 
vided with  a  conveyor  screw  to  feed  the  grapes  to  the  stemmer  in  the  right 
proportion  and  a  grape  crusher  was  placed  below  which  crushed  the  whole 
berries  that  had  passed  through  the  bars.  This  machine  was  the  first  success- 
ful grape  stemmer  and  crusher  and  it  had  the  distinction  also  of  removing 
the  stems  before  crushing  the  berries.  It  was  made  in  1878  and  was  the  fore- 
runner of  many  different  styles  of  machines  for  doing  this  work. 

This  machine  was  placed  in  a  winery  which  was  built  into  a  hill,  the 
upper  floor  coming  level  with  the  roadway  at  the  rear.  The  machine  was 
placed  just  outside  the  building  and  alongside  the  driveway.  The  grapes 
were  thrown  into  this  machine,  which  removed  the  stems  and  crushed  the 
berries  and  discharged  the  must  into  four-wheel  carts  which  were  used  to 
carry  the  must  to  the  fermenting  tanks. 

Soon  after  the  elevator  came  into  use,  the  first  type  being  a  canvas  belt 
on  to  which  wood  cleats  were  securely  fastened,  two  pulleys  transmitting  the 
power  which  delivered  the  grapes  into  the  crusher.  This  style  of  elevator 
could  not  work  at  very  steep  angles  and  was  soon  replaced  by  the  chain  and 
cleat  elevator  which  could  work  at  much  greater  angles  and  consequently 
saved  a  great  deal  of  room  in  the  building,  and  increased  the  elevation  to 
which  grapes  could  be  raised.  This  improvement  brought  in  the  gravity 
flume  or  chute  system.  The  stemmers  and  crushers  were  placed  in  a  central 
tower  discharging  the  must  from  that  point  into  a  system  of  flumes  which 
was  connected  to  all  the  fermenting  tanks  in  the  cellar.  This  was  a  very 
great  saving,  both  in  cleanliness  and  labor.  The  teams  did  not  have  to  wait 
while  discharging  their  load,  but  could  work  right  along,  not  seeing  or  caring 
where  the  grapes  went  to.  The  blocking  of  the  chutes,  causing  them  to  over- 
flow, is  responsible  for  many  of  the  gray  hairs  on  the  head  of  the  cellar 
master,  who  delighted  in  showing  his  nice,  clean  cellar  at  just  the  moment 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  251 

when  the  chute  was  blocked  and  the  must  running  all  over  the  floor,  and 
the  teamster  showing  the  fellow  behind  how  quickly  he  could  get  rid  of 
his  load. 

It  was  in  1896  that  must  pumps  for  handling  pomace  were  first  used  and 
this  was  the  first  radical  change  in  wine  making  machinery.  The  crushers 
and  stemmers  before  this  time  had  undergone  many  degrees  of  improvement 
and  had  reached  a  state  whereby  a  machine  could  be  utilized  for  removing 
the  stems  from  the  berries,  and  so  perfectly  was  this  work  done,  at  that  time, 
that  no  difference  could  be  detected  between  berries  removed  one  at  a  time 
by  hand  from  a  bunch  of  grapes,  and  those  removed  by  the  machine.  It  was 
the  first  must  pump,  however,  that  created  a  new  era  for  the  winemaker. 

The  first  must  pumps  used  were  of  the  plunger  type  with  a  long  stroke. 
The  piston  was  raised  past  openings  in  the  cylinder,  a  hopper  large  enough 
to  hold  a  quantity  of  must  to  cover  these  openings  was  fitted  around  this 
cylinder,  the  hopper  was  placed  below  the  crusher  discharge  and  the  must 
allowed  to  run  into  the  hopper  and  through  the  openings  into  the  cylinder. 
The  plunger  then  descended  on  to  the  must  and  forced  it  into  the  pipe  line, 
which  conveyed  it  to  any  part  of  the  fermenting  cellar. 

After  this  method  came  in  vogue,  wineries  ceased  to  be  built  against 
a  hill  and  were  placed  out  in  the  open  and  could  be  extended  indefinitely  as 
the  business  grew.  The  pipes  being  closed,  there  was  no  danger  of  vinegar 
flies  gathering  on  the  chutes,  and  many  other  dangers  of  the  spoiling  of  wine 
were  removed.  About  this  time  the  centrifugal  pump  was  tried  in  many 
places,  but  never  proved  successful  as  a  must  pump.  Under  some  conditions 
it  would  work,  but  as  soon  as  the  grapes  started  any  fermentation  the  gas 
would  collect  in  the  runner  and  the  pump  would  stop  operating.  The  rotary 
pump  was  tried  later,  but  it  did  not  have  durability,  the  tartar  would  wear 
away  the  cylinders  and  their  life  was  too  short  for  economy. 

A  cross  between  a  centrifugal  and  a  rotary  proved  fairly  successful  and 
can  be  found  in  use  at  the  present  time,  but  they  are  objectionable  as 
their  efficiency  is  only  31  per  cent  of  the  power  applied.  This  class  of 
machine  was  rapidly  replaced  by  the  all-closed-in  type  of  a  plunger  pump 
which  sucks  the  must  from  underneath  the  crusher  and  delivers  it  into  the 
fermenting  tanks  without  being  further  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

The  must  pump,  therefore,  abolished  at  one  stroke  the  long,  costly  and 
unsatisfactory  elevators,  the  expensive  and  dirty  chute  system,  and  did  away 
with  the  high  towers  in  the  buildings,  allowing  a  clean,  sweet,  light  build- 
ing to  be  used  for  fermentation  purposes.  The  pump  would  handle  the  grapes 
at  one-quarter  of  the  cost  that  they  could  be  handled  with  the  elevator  and 
the  chute  system,  in  addition  to  which  one  man  could  watch  the  place  where 
the  grapes  were  discharged  in  the  tanks  and  also  where  they  were  were 
being  delivered  to  the  crusher  by  the  team. 

It  is  by  the  aid  of  the  must  pump  that  our  large  plants  are  now  able  with 
one  large  unit  to  crush  as  much  as  25,000  tons  of  grapes  during  one  season. 

The  must  pumps  are  not  alone  in  their  advancement,  for  the  same 
amount  of  improvement  will  be  found  in  all  the  different  branches  of  the 
viticultural  industry. 


252  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

After  the  grapes  are  crushed  and  fermentation  has  taken  place,  the 
pomace  is  removed  from  the  tanks  by  various  means,  and  delivered  to  the 
presses.  I  cannot  pass  this  important  branch  of  the  industry  without  men- 
tioning some  of  these  improvements. 

After  the  old  log  press,  already  mentioned,  came  various  kinds  and  styles 
of  screw  presses.  The  one  most  generally  used  and  giving  universal  satis- 
faction is  the  one  which  has  a  central  screw  secured  at  the  bottom  projecting 
through  the  bed  on  which  the  cage,  carrying  the  pomace,  rests.  This  cage  is 
filled  with  pomace,  blocking  is  placed  over  the  pomace  and  the  nut  screwed 
down,  the  bed  of  the  press  carrying  all  of  the  strains,  the  pomace  being  on 
top  of  this  bed.  When  the  nut  is  screwed  down  it  presses  the  pomace  in  a 
satisfactory  manner. 

The  hydraulic  presses,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds,  are  also  freely 
used  in  the  wineries.  They  are  provided  with  two  movable  cars  and  baskets, 
one  of  which  is  being  filled  while  the  other  one  is  being  pressed.  These  cars 
are  usually  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  rolled  in  between  fermenting  tanks 
and  the  pomace  filled  directly  into  them.  After  being  filled  they  are  rolled 
to  the  press  for  pressing. 

The  hydraulic  press  is  the  favorite  with  all  of  the  wine  makers  where 
a  dry  wine  is  desired,  but  in  the  districts  where  grapes  are  cheap,  the  con- 
tinuous presses  are  most  commonly  used.  This  type  of  press  will  extract  5 
per  cent  to  10  per  cent  more  juice  from  the  grapes  than  the  hydraulic  press. 
This  figure  is  given  as  a  result  of  numerous  tests  taken  at  different  wineries 
covering  several  years  of  time  where  both  these  types  of  machines  have 
been  in  operation. 

The  juice  from  the  continuous  press  is  not  so  clear  as  that  delivered  by 
the  hydraulic  press.  This  is  due  to  the  friction  of  the  screw  on  the  pomace 
grinding  some  of  the  skins  while  pressing  out  the  juice.  There  have  been 
many  different  styles  of  continuous  wine  presses,  each  one  having  something 
that  appealed  to  the  man  who  made  it,  but  up  to  the  present  moment  none 
of  them  have  entirely  overcome  the  grinding  up  of  the  skins  and  the  subse- 
quently cloudy  pressed  wine. 

The  continuous  press  has  one  fault  but  many  virtues,  and  with  it  the 
pressing  of  a  season's  pomace  has  lost  its  terrors  to  the  wine  maker.  It  was 
the  continuous  press  that  first  caused  the  conveying  systems  to  be  installed 
to  carry  the  fermented  pomace  from  the  tanks  to  the  press. 

The  first  system  of  conveyors  used  was  built  with  chain  and  cleats  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  the  grape  elevators.  These  were  placed  in  the 
runway  between  two  rows  of  fermenting  tanks  and  the  pomace  shoveled  out 
of  the  tanks  into  these  conveyors  which  discharged  into  the  press.  But  as 
the  diameter  and  height  of  the  fermenting  tanks  increased,  the  tanks  became 
too  high  to  shovel  over  the  top,  so  conveyors  were  placed  under  the  tanks, 
and  a  hole  cut  through  the  bottom  and  the  pomace  delivered  through  this 
hole  into  the  conveyors.  Here  another  trouble  was  met,  all  the  wine  did  not 
flow  out  as  it  was  supposed  to  do  when  the  hose  was  attached,  but  a  large 
quantity  remained  in  the  pomace  and  as  soon  as  the  plug  in  the  bottom  was 
drawn  out  the  rush  of  wine  and  pomace  could  not  be  stayed  and  it  was  soon 
found  necessary  to  abandon  the  conveying  system  below  the  bottom  of  the 
tanks. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  253 

The  next  step  taken  in  an  effort  to  empty  these  tanks  was  a  pump  which 
was  a  cross  between  a  rotary  and  a  centrifugal.  A  suction  pipe  of  large 
diameter  was  placed  between  the  two  rows  of  tanks  with  an  opening  for 
every  four  tanks  and  a  valve  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  suction  pipe  was 
fastened  on  to  the  bottom  of  each  tank  and  a  piece  of  hose  was  connected 
between  the  valve  and  suction  pipe.  The  pump  was  then  started  and  the  free 
juice  and  pomace  were  pumped  out  of  the  tank  into  the  press.  A  smaller 
sized  centrifugal  pump  returned  the  free  juice  to  the  same  tank  to  keep  the 
pomace  well  stirred  up  until  the  whole  tank  was  emptied.  With  this  system 
a  tank  holding  100  tons  of  grapes  could  be  emptied  in  one  hour's  time. 

This  system  also  had  many  disadvantages.  It  was  costly  to  operate, 
taking  a  lot  of  power  and  the  volume  was  much  too  great  for  the  presses,  so 
that  the  pomace  had  to  be  again  handled  in  the  presses  before  it  was  finally 
disposed  of. 

The  next  method  was  to  introduce  a  screw  conveyor  through  a  manhole 
in  the  side  of  the  tank.  This  was  run  by  the  chain  conveyor  which  carried 
the  pomace  to  the  presses  when  these  conveyors  were  adjusted  to  the  proper 
speed.  Only  one  shoveling  was  necessary  and  very  little  of  this  was  required, 
as  the  conveyor  being  placed  very  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  nearly  all 
of  the  pomace  gravitated  into  it  and  only  the  last  of  the  pomace  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tank  required  handling. 

To  return  again  to  the  first  operation,  namely,  crushing,  some  of  our 
wineries  are  now  arranged  so  that  the  railroad  cars  can  run  alongside  the 
conveyers,  which  are  provided  with  self-feeders  which  deliver  the  right 
amount  of  grapes  to  the  crusher  and  no  more.  The  must  pump  delivers  this 
through  a  piping  system  to  the  fermenting  tanks,  and  after  fermentation  the 
conveyors  take  the  pomace  from  the  inside  of  the  tanks  and  deliver  it  to  the 
presses.  After  it  is  pressed,  it  is  discharged  on  to  another  conveyor,  which 
carries  it  away  to  the  refuse  pile,  so  that  after  the  grapes  are  once  picked 
from  the  vine  they  go  through  all  these  processes  without  ever  being 
touched  again. 

The  time  allowed  will  not  permit  me  to  touch  upon  the  other  branches 
such  as  filtering,  pasteurizing,  racking,  and  pumping  the  wines,  each  of  which 
has  gone  through  as  many  styles  of  refinement  as  those  before  mentioned. 
But  let  me  thank  you  for  the  kind  attention,  and  beg  for  a  little  better  under- 
standing of  the  engineer,  for  without  him  none  of  these  changes  could  have 
taken  place. 


254  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

SOME    EESULTS    OF    THE    PRACTICAL    APPLICATION    OF 

SULFUROUS  ACID  AND   SELECTED  YEAST  IN  THE 

FERMENTATION    OF    CALIFORNIA    "WINES, 

1913  AND  1914. 

By  W.  V.  CRUESS, 

Division  of  Viticulture,  University  of  California. 


Most  published  data  on  the  effect  of  sulfurous  acid  and  pure  yeast  on 
the  quality  of  wines  deal  with  figures  obtained  under  carefully  controlled 
experimental  conditions;  very  little  information  is  available  on  the  results 
obtained  from  their  use  by  practical  wine  makers.  For  this  reason  the  com- 
position of  wines  from  California  cellars  using  sulfurous  acid  and  pure  yeast 
in  fermentation  has  been  compared  with  the  composition  of  wines  made  in  the 
same  localities  by  the  old  method  of  "natural"  fermentation.  The  analyses 
represent  thirty-three  different  cellars  and  for  that  reason  can  probably  be 
taken  as  being  more  or  less  representative  of  California  conditions. 

The  methods  in  which  the  pure  yeast  and  sulfurous  acid  were  applied  by 
the  wine  makers  in  the  manufacture  of  the  wines  discussed  in  this  paper  may 
be  described  briefly  as  follows: 

A  quart  bottle  containing  pure  "Burgundy"!  wine  yeast  growing  on  agar 
must  is  sent  by  the  Enology  Laboratory  to  the  wine  maker  applying  for  it. 
He  fills  the  flask  with  sterile  must.  When  this  is  in  vigorous  fermentation, 
it  is  used  to  inoculate  two  gallons  of  sterile  must,  and  this,  when  in  fermenta- 
tion, is  poured  into  25-50  gallons  of  must,  either  sterilized  previously  by 
heating  with  steam,  or  previously  treated  with  a  small  amount  of  sulfurous 
acid,  settled  and  racked  before  adding  the  yeast.  The  larger  lot  of  inoculated 
must  is  aerated  and  kept  warm  artificially  till  in  active  enough  fermentation 
to  be  used  to  inoculate  a  tank  of  crushed  grapes  or  white  must. 

The  first  tank  of  crushed  grapes  is  treated  at  or  immediately  after  crush- 
ing with  8-12  oz.  potassium  metabisulfite  (K2S2O5)  per  ton.  This  amounts  to 
approximately  275-412  milligrams  metabisulfite  per  kilo  or  137  to  206  mgms. 
SO2  per  kilo,  figuring  K2S2O5  at  50%  SO2.  The  sulfited  grapes  are  allowed 
to  stand  a  few  hours  (2-4)  after  crushing.  The  vat  is  then  inoculated  with 
the  25-50  gallons  of  yeast.  When  in  fermentation,  a  portion  of  this  vat  is 
used  to  start  the  next  vat  of  crushed  and  sulfited  grapes.  This  process  is 
repeated  successively  through  the  season.  This  is  practically  the  method 
advised  in  Circular  119  of  the  University  of  California  Station.2 

Some  of  the  more  careful  wine  makers  maintain  a  pure  yeast  apparatus 
from  which  each  vat  is  inoculated.  The  method  followed  consists  in  replac- 
ing the  liquid  used  from  the  first  50  gallons  of  yeast  for  inoculation  by  must 
previously  treated  with  metabisulfite  and  cleared  by  settling  24  hours. 


iThe  "Burgundy"  yeast  was  sent  the  station  several  years  ago  by  the 
Ecole  National  d' Agriculture  at  Grignon,  France.  It  has  a  high  fermenting 
power  and  settles  rapidly  after  fermentation. 

^Circular  119,  University  of  California  Station,  "Winery  Directions,"  by 
Professor  F.  T.  Bioletti. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


255 


In  the  cellars  where  the  wines  were  made  in  the  old  way  by  natural 
fermentation,  the  crushed  grapes  were  allowed  to  ferment  spontaneously. 
In  some  cases  fermenting  must  from  one  vat  was  used  to  inoculate  the  next 
vat  of  crushed  grapes,  but  neither  selected  yeast  nor  sulfurous  acid  was  used. 

No  cooling  of  the  must  during  fermentation  was  carried  out  in  the  manu- 
facture of  any  of  the  wines  under  discussion. 

The  analyses  were  made  in  most  cases  of  samples  taken  about  the 
time  of  the  first  racking  of  the  wines  in  December  and  January. 

No  notes  were  taken  on  the  varieties  of  grapes  used,  the  degree  of  ripe- 
ness in  each  instance,  etc.  Therefore,  the  determinations  of  most  value 
in  judging  the  relative  quality  of  the  wines  produced  are  those  which  give 
us  a  measure  of  their  soundness.  These  are  primarily  the  volatile  acid  and 
sugar  determinations.  Tables  1,  2,  3  and  4  give  the  volatile  acid  and  sugar 
content  of  each  sample,  while  Table  5  gives  a  general  summary  of  the 
average  general  composition  of  all  samples  analyzed. 


TABLE   1. 

Volatile  Acid,  Sugar  and  Microscopical  Appearance  of  California  Dry  Wines, 
1913,  Fermented  with  Pure  Yeast  and  Sulfurous  Acid. 


District  and  Color 
Sonoma  County  Red. 


White 


Napa  County  White. 
Red.... 


Laboratory 

Volatile 

Microscopical 

Number 

Acid 

Sugar                Examination 

1076 

.040 

.130        Yeast  only 

1077 

.062 

.260 

1089 

.078 

.190 

1091 

.054* 

.560 

1092 

.084 

.190 

1088 

.054 

.080 

1017-1 

.067 

.230 

-2 

.045 

.210 

-3 

.044 

.180 

-4 

.044 

.200 

-5 

.043 

.170 

-6 

.043 

.270 

-7 

.048 

.160 

-8 

.048 

.200 

-9 

.073 

.070 

1022 

.040 

.220 

1023-b 

.050 

.140        Y.  &  a  few  Vinegar  Bact. 

1024-b 

.041 

.290 

1025-b 

.060 

.220 

1026-b 

.070 

.380        Yeast  only 

1027-b 

.040 

.250 

1028-b 

.062 

.800 

1029-b 

.080 

.640 

1045 

.030 

.240 

1046 

.080 

.240 

1022-a 

.046 

.270 

1022-b 

.040 

.470 

1023-a 

.051 

.850 

1023-c 

.038 

.130 

1024-a 

.040 

.330 

1141 

.029 

.080 

1148 

.036 

.050 

1143 

.054 

.050 

1144 

.026 

.100 

1145 

.065 

.100 

1147 

.088 

.079        Yeast  and  a  few  tourne 

256 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


TABLE  1 — Continued. 


Laboratory    Volatile 

Microscopical 

District  and  Color 

Number          Acid 

Sugar 

Examination 

Napa   County  Red 

1148            .049 

.080 

Yeast 

only 

1149             .046 

.080 

'             "          « 

1150             .040 

.050 

" 

" 

'             "           " 

1151             .029 

.050 

" 

" 

t             n          tt 

1152             .048 

.050 

Yeast 

&  a  few  bacteria 

t 

1153             .041 

.070 

Yeast 

only 

t             «          tt 

1154             .074 

.110 

" 

" 

Contra  Costa  Co.  Red..     1174             .060 

.180 

" 

" 

«           a          tt 

1175             .090 

.280 

" 

" 

"          "          " 

1176             .050 

.450 

" 

" 

«           «           « 

1179             .059 

.300 

" 

" 

'           "          " 

1180             .075 

.220 

" 

" 

'           «           " 

1183             .055 

.110 

" 

" 

"          " 

1214             .070 

.136 

" 

" 

tt          tt 

1215             .086 

.190 

" 

" 

tt          tt 

1216             .090 

.122 

" 

" 

tt          tt 

1217             .068 

.270 

" 

" 

tt          tt 

1219             .068 

.156 

" 

" 

tt          .< 

1220             .048 

.278 

** 

(t 

«           tt 

1221             .086 

.080 

" 

" 

tt          it 

1222             .100 

.334 

Yeast 

and  a  few  tourne 

tt          tt 

1223             .086 

.360 

Yeast 

only 

tt          n 

1225             .118 

.068 

Yeast 

and  a  few  tourne 

tt          tt 

1226             .102 

.136 

Yeast 

only 

tt          tt 

1228             .066 

.129 

" 

San  Diego  Co.  Red. 

1118             .050 

.070 

' 

* 

1119             .050 

.050 

<        «      a        tt 

1120             .048 

.070 

< 

t        tt      tt        tt 

1121             .041 

.060 

' 

t 

1122             .050 
1123             .048 

.070 
.060 

• 

tt        n      tt        tt 

1124             .053 

.060 

' 

Average  

058 

.148 

TABLE  2. 

Wines  Fermented  Without  Sulfurous 

Acid  or 

Pure  Yeast,  1913. 

Laboratory    Volatile 

Microscopical 

District  and  Color 

Number          Acid 

Sugar 

Examination 

Sonoma  County  Red  1056            .213 

.320 

Many 

tourne  bacteria 

"            "          " 

1057            .060 

.300 

Yeast 

only 

"            "          " 

1058            .175 

.350 

Many 

tourne  bacteria 

"            "          " 

1059             .044 

.240 

Yeast 

only 

"            "          " 

1060             .075 

.410 

Many 

tourne 

a            ti          tt 

1061             .180 

.350 

" 

" 

.<            tt          tt 

1062             .148 

.580 

" 

" 

tt            ^          tt 

1063             .120 

.500 

" 

" 

«            tt          tt 

1064             .080 

.500 

Yeast 

and  a  few  tourne 

" 

1065             .105 

.080 

Yeast 

and  vinegar  bact. 

tt            tt          tt 

1066             .057 

.470 

Yeast 

and  a  few  bact. 

tt          tt 

1067             .060 

.790 

Many 

bacteria 

"            "          " 

1068             .080 

.390 

A  few 

bacteria 

« 

1069             .123 

.200 

Many 

bacteria 

«            n          tt 

1070             .105 

.480 

" 

" 

"            "          " 

1071             .045 

.100 

Yeast 

only 

«          « 

1078             .155 

.370 

Many 

tourne  bacteria 

tt          tt 

1079             .120 

.400 

(< 

tt            tt 

REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


257 


TABLE  2— Continued. 


Laboratory 

Volatile 

District  and  Color       Number 

Acid 

Sugar 

Sonoma  County  Red  1080 

.260 

.990 

«            « 

1081 

.290 

.440 

"             ' 

1082 

.210 

.  1.170 

«             « 

1083 

.166 

.310 

«             < 

1021 

.260 

.270 

1024-c 

.136 

.400 

1025-a 

.150 

.380 

1025-c 

.136 

.400 

1026-a 

.104 



1026-c 

.098 

.400 

1029-b 

.100 

1.000 

"             ' 

1032 

.092 

.540 

"             4 

1033 

.050 

.270 

« 

1034 

.080 

.430 

«             * 

1035 

.056 

.320 

«             * 

1036 

.094 

.750 

«             ' 

1038 

.104 

.210 

*             « 

1039 

.090 

.220 

f             ' 

1040 

.052 

.260 

1             ' 

1041 

.074 

.300 

*             ' 

1041-b 

.060 

.230 

'             ' 

1042 

.100 

.310 

4             ' 

1043-a 

.072 

.290 

4             ' 

1043-b 

.075 

.200 

"             * 

1044 

.058 

.360 

«             i 

1037 

.106 

.670 

«             « 

1164-b 

.130 

.540 

" 

1165-b 

.160 

.510 

«             « 

1156 

.114  ' 

.070 

"             • 

1157 

.104 

.700 

"            " 

1158 

.102 

.150 

"            " 

1159 

.130 

.060 

«            " 

1160 

.098 

.090 

«            « 

1161 

.100 

.140 

"            " 

1162 

.052 

.130 

Santa  Clara  Co.  Red  1084 

.071 

.170 

<«            «      « 

1085 

.140 

.220 

"      "        "           1107-a 

.060 

.070 

"       "        "           1107-b 

.118 

.250 

"      "        "           1107-c 

.070 

.130 

Sacramento  Co.  Red  1027-a 

.180 

3.300 

1028-a 

.185 

1.080 

1029-a 

.170 

.760 

1030-a 

.230 

1.590 

"            " 

1257- 

1 

.160 

1.440 

"            " 

1257- 

2 

.144 

.490 

«            « 

1257- 

3 

.130 

.180 

"            " 

1257- 

4 

.134 

.950 

"            " 

1257- 

5 

.130 

.190 

"            " 

1257- 

6 

.134 

.590 

"            " 

1257- 

7 

.139 

.190 

"            " 

1257- 

8 

.204 

.330 

"            " 

1257- 

9 

.160 

.400 

1257-10 

.154 

.980 

1257-11 

.171 

.110 

1257-12 

.154 

.980 

1257-13 

.154 

.410 

1257-14 

.070 

.180 

1257-15 

.066 



Microscopical 
Examination 


A  few  tourne  bacteria 
Many  tourne  bacteria 


A  few  tourne 

Many  tourne  bacteria 


Yeast  only 
A  few  bacteria 
Many  tourne  bacteria 
A  few  tourne  bacteria 
Many  tourne  bacteria 


258 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


TABLE   2— Continued. 


Laboratory 

Volatile 

District  and  Color       Number 

Acid 

Sugar 

Sacramento  Co.  Red  1257-16 

.080 



1257-17 

.082 



1257-18. 

.066 

1257-19 

.050 

.160 

1257-20 

.044 

.200 

1257-21 

.045 



1257-22 

.048 

1257-23 

.058 

.150 

1257-24 

.084 

1.670 

1257-25 

.149 

2.950 

1257-26 

.141 

1.930 

1257-28 

.066 

1.930 

1257-29 

.129 

3.020 

1257-30 

.147 

2.490 

1257-31 

.065 

.90 

1257-32 

.095 

1.130 

1257-33 

.088 

.710 

1257-34 

.082 

.710 

"     White      1257-35 

.153 

.120 

1257-36 

.120 

.150 

1257-37 

.129 

.420 

1257-38 

.210 

.140 

1257-39 

.140 

.120 

1257-40 

.059 



1257-41 

.087 



1257-42 

.068 



San  Joaquin  Co.  Red....     1165 

.084 

.050 

"       "           1164-a 

.134 

.150 

"       "           1165-a 

.156 

.150 

"     White    1166 

.130 

.110 

1167 

.145 

.090 

Microscopical 
Examination 


Many  tourne 


Average 114 


.550 


TABLE  3. 
Wines  Fermented  With  Sulphurous  Acid  and  Pure  Yeast,  1914. 

Microscopical 
Examination 
Yeast  only 


Laboratory 

Volatile 

District  and  Color       Number 

Acid 

Sugar 

Sonoma  County  Red  1418-  5 

.064 

.400 

" 

' 

1418-  6 

.055 

.350 

" 

' 

1418-  7 

.067 

.460 

" 

1 

1418-  8 

.065 

.360 

" 

' 

1418-  9 

.054 

.340 

a 

' 

1418-10 

.033 

.200 

tf 

' 

1418-11 

.048 

.280 

tt 

' 

1418-12 

.049 

.200 

" 

1 

1418-13 

.047 

.390 

tf 

' 

1418-14 

.072 

.700 

tt 

' 

1418-15 

.046 

.750 

" 

1 

1418-16 

.047 

.320 

" 

i 

1418-17 

.042 

.200 

" 

' 

1418-18 

.041 

.260 

" 

1 

1418-20 

.041 

.380 

tt 

1418-22 

.074 

.210 

" 

1418-23 

.038 

.260 

" 

1418-24 

.044 

.380 

Yeast  and  a  few  tourne 
Yeast  only 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


259 


TABLE  3—  Continued. 

Laboratory 

Volatile 

District  and 

Color       Number 

Acid 

Sugar 

Sonoma  County  Red  

1418-25 

.030 

.100 

<« 

1418-26 

.048 

.320 

44                                  44 

44 

1418-27 

.063 

.500 

44                                  .4 

44 

1418-28 

.050 

.320 

44                                  44 

'4 

1418-29 

.053 

.100 

44                                  .4 

'4 

1418-30 

.043 

.340 

44                                  44 

" 

1418-31 

.052 

.220 

44                                  44 

" 

1418-32 

.053 

.180 

44                                  44 

" 

1418-33 

.078 

.480 

44                                  44 

44 

1418-34 

.047 

.100 

14                                  44 

" 

1418-35 

.071 

.150 

44                                  44 

" 

1418-36 

.085 

.300 

44                                  44 

White- 

1418-37 

.042 

.100 

44                                  44 

Red  

1407-  1 

.060 

.040 

•  4                                  14 

" 

1407-  2 

.032 

.070 

44                                  44 

White- 

1407-  3 

.044 

.050 

44                                  44 

Red  

1438-21 

.028 

.190 

44                                  44 

« 

1438-22 

.046 

.180 

(4                                     4 

« 

1438-23 

.032 

.100 

44                                    4 

" 

1438-24 

.023 

.090 

44                                     4 

4( 

1438-25 

.028 

.170 

44                                    4 

44 

1438-26 

.042 

.090 

4<                                    4 

White- 

1448-  1 

.058 

.080 

44                                     4 

Red...... 

1448-  2 

.045 

.110 

Xapa  County 

Red      .  .  .. 

1438-  2 

.041 

44 

1438-  3 

.046 

.120 

44                               4( 

44 

1438-  4 

.043  ' 

.100 

44                                  44 

" 

1438-  5 

.066 

.100 

14                                  44 

" 

1438-  6 

.052 

.090 

44                                  14 

" 

1438-  7 

.036 

.110 

44                                  44 

" 

1438-  8 

.043 

.200 

44                                  44 

" 

1438-  9 

.038 

.280 

41                                  44 

White  

1438-10 

.040 

.500 

44                                  44 

Red 

1438-11 

.052 

.130 

44                                  44 

White 

1438-12 

.052 

.130 

44                                  44 

Red       ..  .. 

1438-13 

.060 

.440 

44                                  44 

1438-14 

.055 

.120 

44                                  44 

" 

1438-15 

.031 

.100 

San  Diego  County  Red.. 

1438-16 

.054 

.130 

44                       44 

44                     44 

1438-17 

.038 

.150 

44                       44 

44                     44 

1438-18 

.058 

.210 

14                       44 

44                     It 

1438-19 

.054 

.090 

4, 

44                     44 

1438-20 

.060 

.130 

Microscopical 
Examination 


Yeast  and  a  few  tourne 
Yeast  only 


Average. 


.049 


.232 


260 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


TABLE  4. 
Wines  Fermented  Without  Sulphurous  Acid  and  Pure  Yeast,  1914. 


Laboratory 

Volatile 

Microscopical 

District  and  Color       Number 

Acid 

Sugar 

Examination 

Sonoma  County  Red  1393-  2 

.043 

Yeast  only 

1393-  3 

.053 



ft          tt 

1393-  4 

.052 

. 

n          tt 

1418-  4 

.075 

.570 

t          a 

1425-  1 

.047 

.200 

i          tt 

1425-  2 

.063 

.240 

t          tt 

1425-  3 

.058 

.350 

t          tt 

1425-  4 

.081 

.190 

i          it 

1425-  5 

.050 

.210 

i  .        n 

1425-  6 

.097 

.140 

Many  tourne 

1425-  7 

.037 

.100 

Yeast  only 

1425-  8 

.048 

.160 

n          tt 

1425-  9 

.064 

.240 

it          a 

1425-10 

.065 

.170 

ft          a 

1425-11 

.056 

.100 

tt          a 

1425-12 

.063 

.160 

t          tt 

1425-13 

.051 

.170 

t          tt 

1425-14 

.071 

.290 

'          « 

1425-15 

.041 

.270 

i          n 

1425-16 

.058 

.170 

t          tt 

1425-17 

.067 

.170 

t          a 

1425-18 

.070 

.190 

t          n 

1425-19 

.064 

.200 

i          tt 

1425-20 

.100 

.370 

Many  tourne 

1425-21 

.103 

.550 

ft          ft 

1425-22 

.274 

.160 

tt          it 

1448-  3 

.181 

.080 

tt          tt 

1438-27 

.074 

.100 

Yeast  only 

1438-28 

.053 

.090 

tt          a 

1438-29 

.052 

.090 

tt           t 

1438-30 

.070 

.100 

tt           t 

1438-31 

.050 

.100 

a           i 

1438-32 

.040 

.090 

'           < 

1438-33 

.061 

.140 

'           < 

1438-34 

.047 

.140 

'            « 

1438-35 

.038 

.100 

<           t 

1438-36 

.044 

.080 

it 

1438-37 

.046 

.100 

t          ft 

1438-38 

.048 

.130 

t          tt 

1438-39 

.044 

.110 

tt          a 

1502-  1 

.163 

.540 

Many  tourne 

1502-  2 

.112 

.540 

it           tt 

1502-  3 

.167 

.580 

tt           tt 

1502-  4 

.158 

.460 

t           tt 

1502-  5 

.157 

.310 

i           it 

San  Joaquin  Co.  Red  1438-  1 

.170 

.710 

< 

1452-  1 

.082 

.200 

•            ' 

1452-  2 

.364 

4.500 

1            < 

1452-  3 

.537 

'            < 

1452-  4 

.309 

« 

Average .098 


.326 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


261 


TABLE  5. 
Summary  of  Analyses   1913  and   1914  Wines. 


Volatile  Acid  Average-- 
Average Sugar 

Average  Alcohol 12.07 

Average  Total  Acid 

Average  Extract 3.15 

Average  Tannin 212 

Maximum  .Volatile  Acid 

Maximum   Sugar 850 

Minimum  Volatile  Acid 
Minimum    Sugar 050 


1913 

£  i 

1913 

2     • 

1914 

•2    i 

1914 

g 

Wines 

"S    : 

Wines 

1  J 

Wines 

"3.    i 

Wines 

"3,  >• 

S09 

£  "2 
w  1 

NoS02 

If 

so2 

II 

NoSO2 

1   ^ 

and 

<•-"     "3 

No 

•—  "3 

and 

</i  >i 
o-  *3 

No 

*  1 

Pure 

o   c 

Pure 

Pure 

0    fi 

Pure 

0   P- 

Yeast 

d 
fc 

Yeast 

i 

Yeast 

i 

Yeast 

d    • 
fc    : 

.058 

68 

.114 

108 

.049 

61 

.098 

50 

.148 

68 

.550 

98 

.232 

60 

.326 

45 

2.07 

69 

11.66 

100 

12.07 

35 

12.09 

36 

.554 

69 

.659 

79 

.58 

36 

.63 

36 

3.15 

69 

3.56 

38 

3.01 

33 

2.763 

33 

.212 

59 

.254 

51 

.192 

33 

.213 

22 

.118 

.290 

.... 

.085 

.... 

.537 

.850 

3.020 

.... 

.750 

.... 

.450 

.... 

.026 

.044 

.023 

.037 

.050 

.050 

.050 

.080 

Discussion   of  1913  Wines. 

The  year  1913  was  marked  by  very  hot  weather  during  the  fermenting 
season.  For  this  reason  practically  every  fermentation  rose  to  a  high  degree, 
100°  to  105°  F.  being  very  common  temperatures  in  the  fermenting  vats. 
This,  of  course,  caused  a  great  deal  of  "sticking"  of  fermentations  and  in 
making  conditions  favorable  for  the  growth  of  acid  forming  bacteria.  Fer- 
mentations that  were  made  with  pure  yeast  and  SO2  reached  just  as  high 
temperatures  as  did  the  "natural"  fermentations.  The  important  differences 
between  the  two  were,  however,  that  the  wines  fermenting  with  pure  yeast 
after  treatment  of  crushed  grapes  with  sulfurous  acid,  did  not  "stick"  with 
unfermented  sugar  and  did  not  increase  in  volatile  acid,  while  the  naturally 
fermented  wines  "stuck"  in  many  instances  and  still  more  commonly  de- 
veloped very  high  volatile  acid.  These  facts  are  distinctly  brought  out  in 
the  individual  analyses  of  Tables  1  and  2  and  in  the  averages  of  sugar  and 
volatile  acid  determinations  in  Table  5. 

The  average  volatile  acid  for  the  wines  fermented  with  sulfurous  acid 
and  pure  yeast  was  .058  per  cent;  for  the  naturally  fermented  wines,  .114 
per  cent.  None  of  the  wines  in  which  SO2  and  pure  yeast  were  used  were 
above  the  commercial  limit  of  .120  per  cent  (for  white  wines)  or  .140  per  cent 
(for  red  wines).  Forty-nine  out  of  108  samples  of  the  naturally  fermented 
wines  were  above  .120  per  cent  and  30  out  of  108  were  above  .140  per  cent. 
That  is  to  say,  almost  30  per  cent  of  the  naturally  fermented  wines  "spoiled" 
as  judged  by  present  commercial  standards.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wines 
made  by  the  improved  methods  were  all  well  below  the  limits  set  for  volatile 
acid,  the  maximum  being  .118  per  cent,  and  only  four  out  of  68  were  above' 
.09  per  cent  volatile  acid.  The  average  (.058)  was  far  below  this  figure. 

The  unfermented  sugar  in  the  wines  made  by  the  two  methods  compare 
in  about  the  same  way  as  do  the  volatile  acid  contents.  The  naturally  fer- 
mented wines  were  much  higher,  on  the  average,  in  unfermented  sugar  than 
the  wines  from  the  same  districts  made  by  pure  yeast  and  SO2.  The  average 
of  .55  per  cent  of  the  naturally  fermented  wines  is  considerably  above  the 
safety  limit  of  .25  per  cent  for  dry  wines;  that  of  .148  per  cent  for  the  pure 


262  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

yeast  wines  shows  complete  fermentation.  Forty-five  out  of  a  total  of  98 
naturally  fermented  1913  wines  were  above  .4  per  cent;  7  out  of  68  of 
wines  made  with  SO2  and  pure  yeast  were  above  .4  per  cent.  Unfermented 
sugar  is  not  so  good  a  criterion  for  judgment  of  the  soundness  of  a  wine 
as  is  volatile  acid,  but  is  valuable  when  considered  in  connection  with 
volatile  acid.  That  may  be  made  plain  by  examples.  A  wine  with  .125  per 
cent  volatile  acid  and  .5  per  cent  sugar  is  decidedly  unsound;  but  one  with 
.05  per  cent  volatile  acid  and  .5  per  cent  sugar  can  be  gotten  dry  and  can 
be  made  into  a  perfectly  sound  wine. 

A  comparison  of  the  miscroscopical  examinations  of  the  various  samples 
is  instructive.  The  "tourne"  or  "lactic  bacterium"  found  in  many  California 
wines  is  an  anaerobic  organism  and  the  one  which  probably  causes  more 
spoilage  than  all  other  organisms  combined.  It  is  no  doubt  identical  with  or 
very  similar  to  the  bacterium  of  "tourne"  of  French  wines  or  the  Bacterium 
Maanitopoeum  described  by  Peltier.3  Wines  with  high  volatile  acid  and  un- 
fermented  sugar  and  badly  infected  with  "tourne"  bacteria  will  almost  in- 
evitably spoil  completely  unless  something  radical  is  done  to  stop  the  bac- 
terial action. 

Fifty-four  out  of  66  naturally  fermented  wines  examined  were  badly 
attacked  by  tourne  bacteria;  several  more  contained  smaller  numbers,  leav- 
ing only  a  very  few  not  visibly  infected  at  the  time  of  analysis.  Only  7  out 
of  68  of  the  wines  made  by  the  improved  method  showed  any  tourne  bacteria 
and  these  exhibited  only  small  numbers. 

Comparison   1914  Wines. 

The  1914  fermenting  season  was  very  cool  and  hot  fermentations  were 
less  common  than  in  1913.  Since  hot  fermentations  cause  most  "stuck" 
wines  with  their  attendant  high  volatile  acid  and  bacterial  content,  we  should 
therefore  expect  to  find  less  marked  difference  in  the  qualities  of  the  1914 
wines  than  in  the  case  of  the  1913  wines.  This  is  found  to  be  true  as  an 
examination  of  Tables  3  and  4  will  show. 

Thirteen  out  of  a  total  of  61  naturally  fermented  1914  wines  were  above 
.10  per  cent  volatile  acid  and  10  were  above  the  commercial  limit  of  .10  per 
cent.  Of  the  wines  made  with  SO2  and  pure  yeast  none  were  above  .10 
per  cent  and  all  were  very  much  below  .140  per  cent.  The  average  in  the 
two  cases  were  .049  per  cent  and  .098  per  cent  respectively. 

Of  the  naturally  fermented  wines,  8  out  of  45  contained  more  than  .4 
per  cent  sugar.  Of  those  fermented  with  pure  yeast  and  SO2,  8  out  of  a 
total  of  60  contained  more  than  .4  per  cent  sugar. 

Microscopical  examination  showed  15  out  of  a  total  of  50  naturally  fer- 
mented wines  to  be  badly  attacked  by  "tourne"  bacteria.  The  wines 
fermented  with  pure  yeast  and  SO2  did  not  exhibit  large  numbers  of  tourne 
bacteria  in  any  case  and  in  only  two  instances  were  any  found.4 

On  the  whole,  the  difference  in  quality  between  the  wines  made  by  the 
two  methods  in  1914  is  not  so  great  as  in  1913,  but  is  nevertheless  distinct 


3See  Revue  de  Viticulture,  vol.  40,  pp.  161-167. 

4The  microscopical  examinations  were  all  made  on  the  non-centrifuged 
sample;  a  wine  showing  large  numbers  of  "tourne"  bacteria  by  this  method 
was  considered  badly  infected. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  263 

and  well  marked.  The  averages  of  .098  volatile  acid  for  the  naturally  fer- 
mented wines  and  .049  for  those  made  with  SO2  and  pure  yeast  prove  this 
statement. 

Summary. 

1.  The  wines  made  in  1913  with  SO2  and  pure  yeast  were  very  much 
lower  in  volatile  acid  and  unfermented  sugar  and  contained  a  much  smaller 
number  of  "tourne"  bacteria  than  wines  from  the  same  district  made  in  the 
usual  way  by  natural  fermentation.    The  1913  season  was  very  warm;  there- 
fore, the  results  demonstrate  the  efficacy  of  pure  yeast  and  SO2  in  producing 
sound  wines  under  adverse  high  temperature  conditions. 

2.  The  1914  wines  showed  less  difference  in  quality  and  composition,  but 
what  difference  there  was  lay  definitely  in  favor  of  the  wines  made  with  SO2 
and  pure  yeast.   The  1914  season  was  very  cool  and  most  favorable  for  sound 
natural   fermentations.      The    fact   that   the   wines   made   by   the   improved 
methods  were  superior  to  the  naturally  fermented  wines  demonstrates  that 
the  use  of  SO2  and  pure  yeast  gives  better  results   (on  the  average)   than 
natural  fermentations  even  under  favorable  conditions  of  temperature. 

Conclusions. 

1.  The  quality  and  soundness  of  wines  made  in  the  ordinary  commercial 
cellars  can  be  raised  very  materially  by  the  use  of  SO2  and  pure  yeast. 

2.  Special  technical  knowledge  is  not  necessary  for  their  use  and  they 
can  be  applied  by  the  average  wine  maker. 


A  SIMPLE  AND  RAPID  METHOD  FOR  THE  ESTIMATION 
OF  VOLATILE  ACID  IN  WINE. 

By  PROF.  W.  V.  CRUESS, 
University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal., 

and 

R.  W.  BETTOLJ, 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 


Most  of  the  methods  for  volatile  acid  estimation  in  wine  require  rather 
complicated  apparatus  for  the  distillation  of  the  volatile  acid  so  that  the  ordi- 
nary wine  maker  or  wine  buyer  does  not  feel  inclined  to  master  the  intricacies 
of  the  process  in  order  that  he  might  use  it  himself.  It  is  the  most  impor- 
tant chemical  determination  to  be  made  in  judging  the  soundness  of  wine 
and  is  a  great  aid  in  deciding  how  to  handle  certain  wines  during  aging. 
Therefore,  any  simplification  of  present  methods  of  making  this  test  would 
be  very  desirable. 

In  the  official  method  a  50  c.  c.  sample  of  wine  is  distilled  in  a  current 
of  steam  till  250  c.  c.  of  distillate  is  collected.  This  distillate  is  titrated 


264  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

with  tenth  normal  alkali  using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator.  The  equiva- 
lent in  terms  of  acetic  acid  is  then  calculated  from  the  c.  c.  of  N/10  of  alkali 
used;  1  c.  c.  being  equal  to  .006  gins,  acetic  acid.  A  method  in  use  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  Italian  Swiss  Colony  and  the  California  Wine  Association 
laboratory  depends  on  distilling  a  50  or  60  c.  c.  sample  of  wine  directly 
without  steam  distillation  and  as  the  distillation  progresses,  the  liquid  dis- 
tilled off  is  replaced  by  distilled  water  which  is  allowed  to  drop  slowly  into 
the  distillation  flask  at  about  the  rate  the  wine  distills  over,  250-300  c.  c  of 
distillate  is  collected  and  titrated  as  in  the  official  method.  This  apparatus 
has  the  advantage  of  compactness  and  convenience.  Probably,  in  effect, 
this  may  be  a  steam  distillation  because  as  soon  as  the  alcohol  of  the  wine 
is  volatized,  the  extract  of  the  wine  raises  the  boiling  point  above  that  of 
distilled  water.  As  the  drops  of  distilled  water  meet  this  relatively  high 
boiling  liquid  the  water  is  vaporized  and  causes  bubbles  of  steam  to  escape 
through  the  liquid  and  in  this  way  carry  over  the  acetic  acid,  which  boils 
above  100°  C. 

The  simplified  method  to  be  discussed  in  this  paper  is  not  a  strictly  new 
idea  but  an  improvement  on  an  old  one.  The  method  is  essentially  one  of 
estimating  the  total  acid  in  the  untreated  wine;  then  in  the  wine  after  driv- 
ing off  the  acetic  acid  and  in  calculating  the  volatile  acid  by  difference. 
Directions  for  making  the  test  in  this  way  recommend  taking  a  small  sample 
and  evaporating  to  a  syrupy  consistency  several  times  on  the  water  bath, 
diluting  and  titrating  with  N/10  alkali.  The  difference  between  this  and  the 
total  acid  of  the  untreated  wine  represents  loss  due  to  volatile  acid;  taking 
into  account,  ot  course,  that  total  acid  is  calculated  as  tartaric  and  volatile 
acid  as  acetic.  This  method  is  slow,  requires  the  use  of  a  water  bath,  and 
experience  has  shown  it  to  be  inaccurate,  especially  for  red  wines,  where 
the  color  interferes  with  the  titration. 

The  Method. 

In  the  modification  of  this  method  a  75  c.  c.  sample,  more  or  less,  of 
the  wine  is  decolorized  with  bone  black  free  from  carbonates.  "Eponit,"  a 
pure  form  of  vegetable  charcoal  freed  from  carbonates  and  in  use  in  France 
for  commercial  decolorization  of  wines  gave  the  best  results.  Impure  bone 
black  is  worse  than  useless  and  cannot  be  used  for  this  volatile  acid  test. 
The  decolorized  wine  is  filtered  and  should  be  water  white.  A  20  c.  c.  sample 
is  titrated,  using  phenolphtholein  indicator,  and  the  c.  c.  of  N/10  alkali  used 
recorded.  Call  this  "a".  Then  20  c.c.  is  taken  and  mixed  with  approximately 
2  gms.  common  salt  NaCL  in  a  200  c.  c.  Erlenmeyer  flask.  The  liquid  is 
boiled  down  rapidly  on  a  gas  flame  or  alcohol  flame  until  a  copious  separation 
of  NaCL  takes  place  and  the  wine  begins  to  spatter.  This  gives  an  unmis- 
takable point  at  which  to  stop.  To  the  flask  is  now  added  20  c.  c.  distilled 
water  and  boiling  repeated  till  NaCL  separates  again.  The  liquid  is  diluted 
with  distilled  water  and  titrated  with  N/10  alkali  using  phenolphtholein 
indicator.  C.  c.  used  are  recorded.  Call  this  figure  "b".  Then 

(a-b)  x  .03  —  volatile  acid  gms.  per  100  c.  c. 

The  factor  .03  comes  from  a  consideration  of  the  following  facts: 
1  c.  c.  N/10  alkali  =  .006  gms.  acetic  acid.     If  a  60  c.  c.  sample  were 

c.c  alkali  X  .006 

used  the  factor  would  be  .01  because  X  100  becomes  c.  c. 

60 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


265 


alkali  x  .01  in  calculating  the  gms.  of  acetic  acid  per  100  c.  c.  wine.     Since 
our  sample  is  1/3  X  60  =  20  c.  c.  the  factor  is  3  times  as  large  or  .03. 

Samples  were  analyzed  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Italian  Swiss  Colony 
for  volatile  acid  using  50  c.  c.  samples,  distilling  to  250  c.  c.  by  the  distilled 
water  dropping  method  described  above.  The  samples  were  analyzed  as 
soon  as  possible  thereafter  in  the  Enology  Laboratory  of  the  University  of 
California,  Berkeley,  by  the  NaCL  evaporation  method.  Results  were  then 
compared.  The  figures  obtained  are  given  in  the  following  table. 


Volatile 

Volatile 

Differ- 

Volatile 

Volatile 

Differ- 

Sample 

Acid  by 

Acid  by 

ence 

Sample 

Acid  by 

Acid  by 

Number 

Distillation 

NaCL  Method 

Number 

Distillation 

NaCL  Method 

1 

.100 

.09°3 

—.007 

40 

.044 

.048 

.004 

2 

.101 

.075 

—.026 

41 

.043 

.054 

.011 

3 

.108 

.111 

.003 

42 

.043 

.054 

.011 

4 

.099 

.105 

.006 

43 

.043 

.039 

—.004 

5 

.084 

.081 

—.003 

44 

.055 

.051 

—.004 

6 

.075 

.084 

.009 

45 

.068 

.072 

.004 

7 

.091 

.096 

.005 

46 

.056 

.060 

.004 

8 

.060 

.063 

.003 

47 

.054 

.059 

.015 

9 

.113 

.114 

.001 

48 

.054 

.057 

.003 

10 

.076 

.081 

.005 

48 

.062 

.057 

—.005 

11 

.096 

.099 

.003 

49 

.080 

.102 

.022 

12 

.096 

.093 

—.003 

50 

.088 

.099 

.011 

13 

.095 

.087 

—.008 

51 

.074 

.084 

.010 

14 

.103 

.102 

—.001 

52 

.174 

.192 

.018 

15 

.097 

.104 

.007 

53 

.018 

.075 

—.003 

16 

.090 

.084 

—.006 

.    54 

.063 

.066 

.003 

17 

.081 

.087 

.006 

55 

.089 

.091 

.002 

18 

.090 

.099 

.009 

56 

.070 

.078 

.008 

19 

.114 

.108 

—.006 

57 

.095 

.093 

—.003 

20 

.085 

.084 

—.001 

58 

.083 

.082 

—.001 

21 

.148 

.135 

—.013 

59 

.089 

.084 

.005 

22 

.161 

.159 

—.002 

60 

.082 

.078 

—.004 

23 

.174 

.165 

—.009 

61 

.092 

.084 

—.008 

24 

.059 

.041 

—.018 

62 

.095 

.090 

—.005 

25 

.099 

.102 

.003 

63 

.087 

.087 

.000 

26 

.055 

.042 

—.013 

64 

.046 

.054 

.008 

27 

.069 

.072 

—.003 

65 

.053 

.048 

—.005 

28 

.066 

.066 

.000 

66 

.101 

.102 

.001 

29 

.055 

.060 

.005 

67 

.098 

.103 

.005 

30 

.072 

.084 

.012 

68 

.101 

.100 

—.001 

31 

.051 

.051 

.000 

69 

.091 

.081 

—.010 

32 

.039 

.042 

.003 

70 

.071 

.078 

.007 

33 

.049 

.048 

—.001 

71 

.085 

.084 

—.001 

34 

.040 

.045 

.005 

72 

.070 

.075 

.005 

35 

.044 

.045 

.001 

73 

.152 

.141 

—.011 

36 

.055 

.057 

.002 

74 

.084 

.087 

.003 

39 

.040 

.054 

.014 

75 

.091 

.087 

—.004 

37 

.042 

.042 

.000 

76 

.097 

.099 

.002 

38 

.045 

.054 

.009 

Effect  of  Number  of  Evaporations. 

A  red  wine  was  analyzed  by  the  distillation  method  for  volatile  acid. 
This  same  wine  was  then  decolorized  with  Eponit  (pure  vegetable  charcoal 
for  wine  makers'  use)  and  filtered.  0  gms.  NaCL;  2  gms.  NaCL;  and  5  gms. 
NaCL  were  used  respectively.  The  samples  were  evaporated  until  NaCL 
separated  when  NaCL  was  used  and  down  to  3-4  c.  c.  where  no  NaCL  was 


266  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

used.  One  evaporation  and  two  evaporations  were  carried  out  and  the  loss 
in  acid  determined.  Where  no  NaCL  was  used,  there  was  a  tendency  for 
the  extract  to  darken  and  make  titration  difficult;  where  NaCL  was  used 
no  such  difficulty  was  met. 

Cms.  of  NaCL  Volatile  Volatile 

Volatile  used  in  NaCL  Acid  by  Acid  by 

Acid  by  Method  for  One  Two 

Distillation  20  c.  c.  Wine  Evaporation  Evaporations 

.089  0  .048  .087 

.089  2  .073  .090 

.089  5  .048  .072 

In  general,  the  agreement  between  the  two  methods  was  satisfactory. 

Better   agreement   was   found   with   samples    containing   small    amounts    of 

volatile  acid  than  large  amounts. 


Effect  of  NaCL  Concentration. 

To  20  c.  c.  samples  of  decolorized  wine  were  added  1,  2,  5,  10  gms. 
NaCl  respectively  and  the  solutions  evaporated  twice  till  NaCl  separated. 
The  samples  were  diluted  and  titrated.  1  and  2  grams  gave  about  the  same 
results.  5  and  10  grams  gave  too  low  results.  This  is  because  the  large 
amounts  of  NaCl  super-saturate  the  liquid  more  quickly  as  the  wine  is  concen- 
trated and  give  too  short  a  time  for  the  expulsion  of  the  volatile  acid.  The 
smaller  amounts  increase  in  concentration  more  gradually  as  the  volume 
decreases  during  boiling.  The  boiling  point  is  increased  and  this  increased 
boiling  point  drives  out  the  acetic  acid  more  effectively  than  is  possible  with 
wine  to  which  no  NaCl  is  added. 

The  NaCl  serves  as  an  indicator  for  the  point  at  which  to  stop  boiling 
and  is  useful  in  this  way. 

It  also  checks  charring  of  the  sample  caused  by  evaporating  too  far; 
the  protective  action  in  this  respect  is  very  marked. 

The  figures  show  that  two  evaporations  are  necessary  with  2  gms.  NaCL 
and  that  two  evaporations  with  5  gms.  NaCL  gives  low  results. 

The  method  and  apparatus  needed  are  simple  as  the  following  list  of 
reagents  and  apparatus  necessary  and  outline  of  method  will  indicate: 

Apparatus:  (1)  Gas  or  alcohol  burner;  (2)  wire  gauze  for  burner;  (3) 
several  200  c.  c.  Erlenmeyer  flasks;  (4)  two  20  c.  c.  pipettes;  (5)  glass  funnel, 
3-inch;  (6)  filter  paper  for  funnel;  (7)  50  c.c.  burette  graduated  to  1/10  c.  c.; 
(8)  burette  stand. 

Reagents:     (1)  N/10  alkali;    (2)  phenolphthalein  indicator  solution;    (3) 
pure  bone  black  as  free  from  mineral  salts  as  it  can  be  made  or  pure  vege- 
table charcoal  free  from  mineral  salts. 
Summary  of  Methods: 

1.  Decolorize  about  75  c.  c.  of  the  sample  with  bone  black  or  vegetable 
charcoal  free  from  carbonates.     Filter. 

2.  Titrate  20  c.  c.  with  N/10  alkali;   record  c.  c.  "a";   the  titration  is 
made  directly  in  the  flask  itself;  no  breaker  is  necessary. 

3.  To  20  c.  c.  add  approximately  2  gms.  NaCL.     Evaporate  200  c.   c. 
Erlenmeyer  till  NaCL  separates  and  liquid  spatters  slightly. 

4.  Add  20  c.  c.  distilled  water  and  evaporate  again  till  NaCL  separates. 

5.  Add  distilled  water  and  titrate.    Record  c.  c.  as  "b". 

6.  (a-b)   X  .03  —  %volatile  acid. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  267 

Summary. 

x 

The  volatile  acid  determination  for  wines  may  be  determined  rapidly 
and  accurately  enough  for  cellar  manipulation  or  buying  of  wines,  by  the 
method  described  above.  The  method  is  simple  and  the  apparatus  needed 
is  not  expensive  or  complicated. 

(From  the  Enology  Laboratory,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  and 
the  Chemical  Laboratory  of  the  Italian  Swiss  Colony,  San  Francisco,  Cal.) 


INFLUENCE  OF  COMPOSITION  ON  EFFERVESCENCE  OF 
CHAMPAGNE.    PRELIMINARY  INVESTIGATIONS. 

R.  W.  BETTOLI  AND  J.  LA  BELLE, 
Laboratory  of  Italian-Swiss  Colony,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


The  effervescence  of  the  gas  or  "sparkle"  is  one  of  the  points  considered 
in  judging  champagnes.  The  ordinary  procedure,  as  we  understand  it,  is  as 
follows:  The  various  champagnes  are  poured  into  separate  glasses  and 
closely  watched  to  note  the  rate  and  duration  of  effervescence.  The  judges 
then  decide  which  wine  has  the  most  life,  sparkle  and  mousse.  This  method 
is  obviously  open  to  criticism,  as  it  is  subject  to  many  sources  of  error,  so 
much  depends  on  the  method  of  opening  the  bottle,  the  pouring  of  the  wine, 
the  cleanliness  of  the  glasses  and  the  close  observation  of  the  judges. 
Furthermore,  the  bottles  should  all  be  opened  at  the  same  time,  but  when 
there  are  many  sparkling  wines  to  judge,  the  wines  must  be  divided  into 
lots  which  are  tested  at  different  times.  The  results  obtained  are  merely 
comparative  within  the  lot  under  consideration,  it  being  a  difficult  matter  to 
remember  the  precise  action  of  any  bottle  of  a  previous  lot.  At  best,  the 
results  are  of  little  scientific  value,  because  they  cannot  be  compared  with 
similar  tests  conducted  by  other  men. 

It  is  of  value  to  the  wine  man  to  know  definitely  the  action  of  his 
champagne  or  sparkling  wine  on  the  table  of  the  consumer.  He  is  also  con- 
cerned in  the  uniformity  of  his  product.  In  order  to  obtain  definite  and  at 
all  times  comparable  results,  we  adapted  a  Lunge's  gasvolumeter  to  accu- 
rately measure  the  rate  of  gas  effervescence. 

This  apparatus  consists  of  a  burette  (D),  a  compensating  tube  (E),  and 
a  leveling  tube  (F),  all  connected  by  means  of  rubber  tubing  (G)  and  partially 
filed  with  mercury.  By  means  of  the  leveling  tube  the  gas  is  allowed  to 
come  off  under  the  same  pressure  as  that  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
This  gas  is  then  reduced  to  standard  conditions  of  O°  C.  and  760  mm.  pres- 
sure by  means  of  the  compensating  tube.  A  full  description  of  the  apparatus 
will  be  found  in  Sutton,  Volumetric  Analysis,  9th  Ed.,  p.  594. 

A  tap  (B)  very  similar  to  that  used  on  manometers  for  measuring  the 
internal  pressure  of  champagnes  was  connected  directly  to  this  apparatus. 
In  this  way  there  was  no  loss  of  gas. 


e's 


ds  used  in  Experiments. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


269 


In  comparing  various  champagnes,  it  was  noted  that  the  rate  of  efferv- 
escence was  extremely  variable  with  different  wines  having  approximately 
the  same  internal  pressure.  Three  bottles,  each  with  an  internal  pressure  of 
five  and  one-half  atmospheres  discharged  their  gases  in  variable  ways.  These 
wines  were,  however,  of  different  composition  and  suggested  a  series  of 
experiments  on  our  part  to  determine  whether  the  composition  of  a  cham- 
pagne exerted  any  influence  on  the  effervescence  of  the  gas.  The  preliminary 
experiments  of  this  series  are  described  below. 

The  champagnes  used  were  prepared  by  Mr.  Charles  Jadeau  at  the  Italian 
Swiss  Colony's  champagne  cellars  at  Asti,  California.  They  were  normal 
sparkling  wines  of  a  single  cuvee,  the  composition  being  modified  after  dis- 
gorging, the  time  at  which  the  "dosage"  is  ordinarily  practiced. 

The  experiments  were  divided  into  series  according  to  the  modification. 
The  various  series  of  bottles  were  modified  as  follows: 

Series  1 — Varying  amounts  of  sugar  (liqueur). 

2  '  "   tartaric  acid. 

3  «  "  citric  acid. 

4  "   tannin. 

5  "   glycerine. 

6  '   extract. 

Three  bottles  were  left  untreated  to  serve  as  "witnesses."  The  average 
of  these  three  bottles  was  obtained  and  used  as  a  basis  of  comparison. 

After  treatment,  the  bottles  were  allowed  to  rest  at  a  temperature  of 
43°  F.  for  about  a  month  and  the  rate  of  effervescence  of  the  gas  was  then 
determined.  The  cork  was  pierced  with  the  tap  which  connected  with  the 
measuring  burette.  The  volume  of  gus  was  measured  at  stated  intervals 
until  the  time  of  evolution  totaled  one  hour.  The  remaining  gas  in  the 
bottle  (A — Figure  1)  was  then  shaken  out,  and  finally  the  bottle  was 
warmed  to  50°  C.  to  remove  all  possible  traces  of  gas. 

In  order  to  represent  the  effervescence  graphicaly  curves  were  plotted 
in  which  the  time  was  measured  along  the  abscissa  and  the  per  cent  of  gas 
evolved  on  the  ordinate.  The  per  cent  of  effervescence  was  obtained  by 
dividing  the  volume  of  gas  given  off  in  a  certain  time  by  the  total  volume 
of  gas  in  the  bottle. 

The  results,  as  obtained  in  the  preliminary  series,  with  the  plotted 
curves  graphically  representing  the  "sparkle,"  follow  in  detail. 

Series  I.     The  Effect  of  Sugar  (Liqueur). 

Varying  amounts  of  liqueur  were  added  to  several  bottles  of  the  "brut" 

champagne  so  that  they  represented  a  "dosage"  of  2,  4,  6  and  8  per  cent, 

respectively.     After  allowing  to  stand,  as  previously  stated,  and  measuring 

the  gas,  analysis  of  the  wines  was  made.     The  results  are  here  tabulated. 

w         WH  o«-        3>  CMS.  PER  100  cc. 


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12.43 

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.958 

:.990 

3:.02 

2.13 

.619 

1 

1209.2 

523.1 

12.30 

1.064 

.047 

1.005 

2.750 

4.71 

2.06 

.020 

2 

1291.9 

217.2 

12.35 

1.079 

.047 

1.020 

5.000 

6.78 

1.88 

.020 

3 

1322.1 

558.9 

12.18 

1.116 

.050 

1.054 

6.600 

8.41 

1.91 

.020 

4 

1418.1 

100.1 

12.25 

1.130 

.051 

1.066 

8.400 

9.89 

1.59 

.019 

270 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


Plate  II  is  a  graphic  representation  of  the  percentage  of  gas  effervescence 
of  the  various  bottles  compared  with  the  average  of  three  untreated  (brut) 
bottles. 


SI  GAR 


7 


Time.  — 

It  may  be  readily  seen  from  the  above  curves  that  sugar  has  a  marked 
effect  upon  the  rate  of  effervescence  of  the  gas.  The  first  rush  of  gas  is 
markedly  decrease  where  sugar  has  been  added.  With  the  exception  of 
bottle  4,  however,  the  effervescence  in  the  last  20  minutes  of  the  hour  is 
faster  than  in  the  case  of  the  witness. 


Series  II.     The  Effect  of  Tartaric  Acid. 

Instead  of  adding  liqueur  at  the  time  of  "dosage,"  as  in  the  previous 
series,  varying  amounts  of  tartaric  acid  were  added  to  different  bottles.  In 
order  to  prevent  too  great  a  modification  of  the  composition  of  the  wines, 
the  tartaric  acid  was  added  in  the  form  of  crystals  in  preference  to  a 
solution.  This  made  it  very  difficult  to  preserve  a  constant  volume  of  gas 
in  the  various  bottles  since  the  crystals,  before  dissolving,  caused  a  brisk 
ebullition  of  gas.  This  variation  in  gas  content  is  shown  in  the  first  column 
of  the  analysis  given  below. 


w 

BE 


0-3 
Big; 


CMS.  PER  100  cc. 


I 


ACIDITY 


1 

CO 

£| 

$ 

£s 

w 

Z% 

t*  D, 

af 

B1 

!     tart 

1 

5" 

O  H 

_, 

2.» 

to  £-* 

§•» 

•     rj^ 

1    g 

1 

*i 

P 

p 

PS 

i  g 

Witness.. 

.  1336.4 

83:7.6 

12.43 

1.020 

.958 

'.990 

302 

2.13 

1 

904.3 

432.4 

12.38 

1.196 

.'048 

1.136 

1.343 

2.51 

1.27 

2 

1408.6 

828.3 

12.51 

1.497 

.049 

1.436 

.280 

2.69 

2.51 

3 

993.6 

628.2 

12.41 

1.585 

.049 

1.524 

1.137 

3.69 

2.65 

4 

813.9 

468.3 

12.45 

2.077 

.050 

1.963 

1.025 

4.03 

3.11 

.019 
.019 
.024 
.020 
.014 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


271 


The  percentages  of  effervescence,  plotted  as  in  Series  I  and  comparable 
to  them  are  shown  on  Plate  III. 


TARTARIC  ACID 


With  the  exception  of  bottle  1,  the  "sparkle"  or  first  rush  of  gas  is  practi- 
cally identical  with  that  of  the  witness.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  rate 
of  effervescence  at  the  start  is  governed  chiefly  by  the  total  gas  present  in 
the  bottle  rather  than  any  effect  of  added  tartaric  acid,  as  is  shown  by  com- 
paring bottle  2  with  the  witness.  Again,  this  rapidity  of  effervescence  just 
after  opening  may  have  been  due  to  cream  of  tartar  which  precipitated  out 
after  storing  in  the  ice  chest,  as  it  was  noticed  in  several  instances  that  gas 
broke  readily  from  small  particles  in  the  wine.  It  would  seem  that  the 
tartaric  acid  causes  the  "sparkle"  to  be  prolonged  even  in  the  case  of  bottle 
1,  where  the  total  volume  of  gas  is  only  about  two-thirds  that  of  the  witness. 
In  other  words,  with  increased  tartaric  acid  there  is  a  less  abrupt  decrease 
in  the  rate  of  effervescence  after  the  first  ten  minutes. 

Series  III.     The  Effect  of  Citric  Acid. 

Citric  acid  was  added  in  the  same  manner  as  tartaric  but  no  difficulty 
was  encountered  in  maintaining  a  uniform  gas  content,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
latter.  In  the  results  given  below  the  added  citric  acid  has  been  calculated 
as  tartaric  for  the  sake  of  convenience. 

w         an  o<        o  CMS.  PER  lob  cc. 


I 

Witness. 
1 
2 
3 
4 


1336.4 
1328.8 
1243.8 
1334.5 
1166.4 


n 

n 
p§ 

83!7.6 
518.2 
644.4 
647.3 
636.0 


II 

«  o 


12.43 
12.51 
12.37 
12.55 
12.32 


r 

ACIDITY                              MW 

• 

H 

|JM 

P    -4* 

i_3  -j 

«  a 

j£ 

~n 

P 
3 

|i 

>! 

SB'Q, 

51 

a. 

"a  -i 

3 

5" 

Is 

1® 

:    - 

•i-\ 

i 

j 

o" 

! 

***   • 

1 

.650 

.958 

.990      3.02      2.13      .01< 

1 

.174 

.049 

1 

.113 

.260 

2.32       2.16       .02( 

1 

.321 

.048 

1 

.261 

1 

.000 

3.36      2.46       .01' 

1 

.696 

.049 

1 

.635 

1 

.062 

3.62      2.66      .01^ 

2.011 

.049 

1 

.950 

1 

.125 

4.17      3.15      .01^ 

272 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


Time- 


From  the  curves  above  it  would  seem  that  added  citric  acid  causes  a 
more  even  "sparkling."  There  is  not  such  a  marked  first  rush  of  gas,  but 
the  rate  of  effervescence  is  steadier  throughout.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  rate  of  effervescence  during  the  last  20  minutes  is  in  inverse  proportion 
to  the  total  amount  of  gas  given  off  up  to  that  time.  In  every  case  the  citric 
acid  appears  to  have  caused  a  higher  rate  of  effervescence  at  the  end  of  one 
hour  than  in  the  case  of  the  witness. 

Series   IV.     The   Effect  of  Tannin. 

The  tannin  was  added  in  the  form  of  a  solution  because  only  a  slight 
increase  of  tannin  content  was  desired.  The  analyses  are  here  tabulated. 

W  WH  0<{  <!>•  CMS.  PER  100  cc. 


W£ 


ACIDITY 


Iff     SI 

o.         :   s 


Witness..  1336.4      837.6      12.43       1.020      .050         .958         .990       3.02       2.13       .019 


1 

1643.0 

912.5 

12.48 

1.028 

.048 

.968 

.260 

2.47 

2.31 

.041 

2 

1539.8 

82.3 

12.50 

1.013 

.048 

.953 

.830 

3.00 

2.27 

.048 

3 

1490.1 

749.6 

12.32 

1.028 

.050 

.966 

.240 

2.54 

2.40 

.061 

4 

1418.7 

208.1 

12.18 

1.020 

.047 

.9G1 

.850 

2.94 

2.19 

.071 

5 

1662.6 

638.6 

12.10 

1.028 

.049 

.967 

.210 

2.43 

2.32 

.081 

REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


273 


Time 


It  is  apparent  from  the  curves  that  tannin  exerts  a  retardative  action  on 
the  rate  of  effervescence,  but  no  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  the 
data  obtained  as  to  the  effect  of  varying  amounts.  Bottles  3  and  5  were  not 
prepared  at  the  same  time  nor  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  others  and 
this  renders  it  impossible  to  deduce  anything  of  real  value.  It  must  be 
noted  however,  that  bottles  1,  3  and  5  are  very  much  lower  in  sugar  than 
2  and  4  and  in  all  three  bottles  the  rate  of  effervescence  was  much  faster. 


Series  V.     The  Effect  of  Glycerine. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  law  prohibits  the  addition  of  glycerine  these 
results  are  of  no  practical  value  and  were  conducted  merely  to  note  its  effect 
for  the  sake  of  possible  interest. 


sg 


CMS.  PER  100  cc. 


Witness...  1336.4   837.6   12.43 


1543.5 
1621.7 
1681.1 
1053.0 


503.0 
119.4 
713.1 
274.9 


12.33 
12.29 
12.13 
11.99 


ACIDITY                           WM 

a 

02  &2 

x 

?3 

f« 

S| 

P 

II 

32. 

M 

o 

S 

CD 

1! 

5- 

Is 

Is" 

2.^* 

M 

: 

:  3 

: 

: 

<T 

: 

i 

:  * 

: 

1.020 

.050 

.958 

.990 

3.02 

2.13 

.019 

1.006 

.049 

.945 

.850 

4.09 

3.34 

.024 

1.006 

.050 

.944 

.780 

4.52 

3.84 

.024 

.991 

.048 

.931 

.606 

5.58 

5.07 

.022 

.991 

.047 

.932 

1.050 

7.88 

6.93 

.022 

274 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


The  determination  of  glycerine  was  not  made,  but  the  approximate 
amount  added  can  be  ascertained  by  deducting  the  sugar-free  solids  of  the 
witness  from  those  of  this  series.  The  percentage  effervescence  of  the  vari- 
ous bottles  follows: 


Time— • 

The  great  retardative  action  of  glycerine  is  clearly  shown  in  the  above 
curves. 

The  sugar  in  bottle  3,  which  had  the  highest  rate  of  effervescence,  is 
much  lower  than  the  others.  This  is  in  accordance  with  previous  data 
which  showed  the  retardative  influence  of  the  sugar. 


Series  VI.     The  Effect  of  Increased  Solids. 

The  amounts  of  solids  in  the  different  bottles  was  increased  by  adding 
varying  amounts  of  a  white  wine  previously  boiled  down  to  about  1/15 
the  original  volume.  This  series  is  really  a  check  on  those  that  have  pre- 
ceded since  the  wine  added  contained  everything  except  the  alcohol  and 
most  of  the  water. 


s*2. 


O   •— ' 
ETo 

§§: 


CMS.  PER  100  cc. 


ACIDITY 


I 

CO 

""*  3* 

1 

SI 

Is     §1       &      &s 

I 

5" 

it 

o  £± 

2.°* 

6 

i 

5 

>•» 

p 

VJ 

P 

2".  * 

P   CO 

* 

» 

p 

i 

Witness.. 

1336.4 

837.6 

12.43 

1.020 

.050 

.958 

990 

3.02       2.13 

1 

1130.8 

523.5 

12.27 

1.189 

.053 

1.123      1 

062 

3.74       2.78 

2 

1273.3 

724.9 

12.29 

1.284 

.055 

1.215 

988 

3.99       3.10 

3 

1169.9 

646.7 

11.90 

1.387 

.056 

1.317 

920 

4.35      3.53 

4 

900.6 

214.2 

11.85 

1.615 

.064 

1.535      1 

000 

6.18       5.28 

.019 
.026 
.032 
.034 
.040 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION 


275 


Time- 


The  sugar  content  is  highest  in  bottle  1  and  a  comparison  of  this  curve 
with  that  of  bottle  1,  series  1,  showis  a  marked  similiarity.  In  the  last  20 
minutes  of  the  hour  the  rate  of  effervescence  in  bottle  1  is  faster  than  in 
bottle  2,  while  3  is  the  fastest  of  all.  The  sugar  is  lowest  in  bottle  3.  The 
tannin  content  is  practically  the  same  in  bottles  2  and  3,  while  in  3  the 
acidity  is  highest.  From  the  previous  data  we  would  expect  the  effervescence 
in  bottle  3  to  be  faster  than  the  others,  which  it  is. 

Bottle  4  is  highest  in  tannin  and  slightly  higher  in  sugar  than  the  other 
bottles  of  this  series.  If  previous  results  are  correct,  the  gas  evolution  should 
be  slow.  By  reference  to  the  curve  (Plate  VII),  it  will  be  noted  that  such 
is  the  case. 

Since  the  experiments  described  were  merely  of  a  preliminary  nature, 
no  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  sugar, 
tannin  and  glycerine  exert  a  marked  retardative  action  on  the  effervescence, 
while  with  the  tartaric  and  citric  acids,  the  effervescence  seems  to  be  pro- 
longed and  not  hastened.  The  fixed  acidity  of  the  wines  used  in  the  experi- 
ments was  already  exceptionally  high  so  that  any  effect  due  to  acidity  may 
not  have  been  so  noticeable  as  it  would  have  otherwise  been. 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 


I.     THE  SUGAR  AND  ACID  CONTENT  OF  AMERICAN 
NATIVE  GRAPES. 

By  WILLIAM  B.  ALWOOD, 
Stonehenge,  Rio  Road,  Charlottesville,  Virginia. 


For  several  years  the  writer  has  carried  on  an  investigation  to  determine 
the  sugar  and  acid  content  of  our  native  grapes.  This  work  was  done  under 
the  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. The  results  have  been  published  somewhat  in  extenso  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  This  paper  deals  with  a  summary  of  the  results 
for  sugar  and  acid  in  ripe  grapes  and  the  varying  ratios  of  these  two  sub- 
stances from  year  to  year.  Only  eight  varieties  are  included  in  this  discus- 
sion because  these  comprise  those  most  generally  grown  for  commercial 
purposes. 

The  fruit  of  the  grape  as  a  food,  or  as  raw  material  for  the  manufacture 
of  wine,  or  of  unfermented  grape  juice,  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  total 
sugar  content  and  the  balanced  ratio  of  its  acid  content  to  the  sugar.  It  is 
true  that  there  are  special  qualities  in  the  nature  of  the  fruit,  as  flavor, 
etc.,  which  contribute  to  its  palatability  for  food  as  fresh  fruit,  or  for  the 
manufacture  of  wine  or  unfermented  grape  juice,  but  the  essential  value, 
after  all,  is  most  readily  based  upon  the  sugar  content  and  the  proper  balance 
of  the  acid  and  sugar.  The  question  of  acceptable  or  non-acceptable  flavor 
of  the  fruit  is  usually  settled  at  the  very  inception  of  a  new  variety.  Those 
which  have  not  sufficiently  desirable  flavors  are  not  propagated  or  widely 
disseminated  for  commercial  purposes. 

Prior  to  the  commencement  of  this  investigation  in  1907,  there  was  very 
little  data  on  the  composition  of  American  native  grapes  available. 

The  purpose  in  undertaking  this  work  was  not  abstract  investigation 
but  to  furnish  information  of  practical  value.  The  chemical  examination 
of  the  fresh  fruit  was  carried  on  principally  at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  but  also 
a  considerable  number  of  samples  were  analyzed  at  Charlo_ttesville,  Va. 
The  samples  have  been  secured  from  growers  direct  and  also  from  the 
stock  as  it  arrived  at  the  wine  cellars  and  juice  factories.  Records  of  the 
samples  have  been  kept  in  such  manner  as  to  identify  the  variety  and  in 
nearly  every  instance  the  farm  where  grown.  While  samples  were  examined 
from  all  the  eastern  grape  growing  districts,  this  paper  includes  data  only 
of  fruit  grown  in  two  districts,  viz:  Northern  Ohio  including  the  islands 
in  Lake  Erie,  and  samples  from  Charlottesville,  Va.  The  reason  for  using 
only  these  results  is  that  the  sampling  was  more  perfectly  done  within  this 
territory  and  experiments  in  making  pure  wines  were  confined  to  grapes 
grown  in  those  two  districts. 

The  sample  taken  for  analysis  consisted  of  about  four  pounds  of  fruit, 
which  was  crushed  by  hand  in  a  porcelain  dish  and  then  the  juice  strained 
off  through  a  double  thickness  of  cheese  cloth  and  eventually  the  pulp  was 
pressed  firmly  by  hand  until  it  was  as  dry  as  usually  pressed  at  the  wine 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  277 

cellars  for  securing  the  pure  juice  of  the  fruit.  A  portion  of  this  expressed 
juice  was  then  taken  for  the  sample.  The  determinations  made  in  all  cases 
comprise  a  Brix  reading  at  20°  C.,  specific  gravity  determination  in  weighed 
pycnometer  at  15.6°  C.,  total  acid  as  tartaric  by  titration  with  N/10  NaOH, 
using  litmus  solution  on  a  spot  plate  for  indicator,  and  the  total  sugar  was 
determined  as  invert.  Fairly  complete  ash  analyses  have  been  made  for  a 
considerable  number  of  samples  and  the  tartaric  acid,  fixed  and  free,  as  well 
as  cream  of  tartar  have  also  been  determined  on  many  samples.  But  the 
main  study  has  been  on  sugar  and  acid  content  and  we  confine  this  paper 
to  a  simple  treatment  of  the  question  of  total  acid  and  sugar  content  in  its 
relation  to  by-products  from  the  grape. 

A  large  number  of  varieties  have  been  analyzed  in  fact  every  sort  found 
in  cultivation  in  the  territory  covered  thus  far.  For  these  complete  results, 
the  Government  publication  should  be  consulted.  Most  of  the  varieties  herein 
considered  have  been  analyzed  each  season  during  four  years,  and  a  sufficient 
number  of  samples  taken  to  warrant  the  belief  that  the  results  are  fairly 
conclusive. 

The  analytical  results  brought  together  in  the  table  cover  three  years 
when  the  crop  was  rated  as  good,  viz:  1908,  1910  and  1911,  and  one  year, 
viz:  1909,  when  the  growers  in  the  northern  grape  belt  rated  the  crop  very 
poor  as  to  quality  though  abundant  in  quantity.  The  results  obtained  in  this 
investigation  tend  to  overthrow  the  statements  commonly  made  in  the  past 
concerning  the  quality  of  our  native  grapes.  It  has  been  freely  stated  that 
the  native  varieties  do  not  produce  a  fruit  rich  enough  in  sugar  and  of 
proper  acid-sugar  ratio  for  the  manufacture  of  pure  wines.  Acting  on  this 
dictum  it  has  become  very  common  to  gallize  arbitrarily  the  wines  made 
from  the  native  American  grapes.  The  question  now  arises,  is  this  practice 
necessary? 

As  to  richness  in  sugar  content,  the  eight  varieties  here  presented,  bar- 
ring Concord  and  Ives,  show  a  sugar  content  equal  to  the  average  fruit 
grown  in  the  best  wine  districts  of  Europe,  and  Concord  and  Ives  do  not 
fall  below  a  very  large  amount  of  the  European  fruit.  However,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  acid  content  is  excessive  in  the  fresh  juice  of  a  number  of 
these  varieties.  But  the  acid  in  the  finished  wine  must  be  taken  into 
account  when  attempting  to  determine  the  general  question  of  gallization. 

The  analytical  results  on  composition  of  each  variety  are  arranged 
consecutively  by  years  for  ready  reference  and  does  not  require  special 
discussion.  The  specific  gravity  given  is,  in  all  cases,  where  more  than 
one  sample  was  analyzed,  the  average  of  all  the  determinations  made,  and 
the  total  solids  were  also  in  like  manner  found  by  average,  hence  it  will 
occur  that  these  figures  in  a  few  instances  do  not  agree  to  the  last  decimal 
with  the  table  giving  extracts  in  wines,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  107, 
revised,  page  218.  All  the  other  data  given  are  averaged  in  like  manner 
'out  are  essentially  accurate.  The  acid  content  and  the  sugar  free  solids  for 
samples  examined  in  1908  are  in  many  instances  low.  The  fruit  that  year 
was  of  very  fine  character,  but  also  the  juice  samples  stood  sometime  before 
final  analysis  and  thus,  by  reason  of  precipitation  of  tartar,  the  acids  and 
solids  were  affected.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  acid  and  sugar  free  solids  are 


278  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

in  most  cases  high  for  1909.  The  fruit  for  that  year  was  poorly  ripened  in 
many  instances,  and  the  analyses  were  made  promptly  before  precipitation 
could  occur.  The  analytical  work  for  the  years  1910  and  1911  was  completed 
promptly  on  the  unaltered  sample. 

The  average  sugar  content  of  the  several  varieties  given  in  the  table 
are  remarkably  constant  for  each  kind  barring  samples  from  Northern  Ohio 
for  1909,  but  the  acid  content  is  not  so  stable  as  the  sugar  content.  It  is 
quite  probable  that  the  acid  is  much  more  readily  affected  by  climatic  condi- 
tions, vigor  of  plants,  healthfulness  of  foliage,  etc.,  than  the  sugar  content. 
These  comparisons  should  not  be  made  between  the  different  districts  but 
on  samples  from  the  same  district.  Note  this  point  as  to  samples  of  Norton 
from  Northern  Ohio  and  Virginia.  The  acid-sugar  ratio  illustrates  sharply 
the  variation  in  the  relation  of  these  most  important  constituents. 

While  I  am  not  prepared  to  propose  at  this  time  any  final  conclusion 
as  to  the  limits  within  which  the  acid-sugar  ratio  may  vary  and  yet  produce 
a  potable  wine  or  unfermented  grape  juice  for  beverage  purposes,  I  am  quite 
certain  that  this  cannot  be  arbitrarily  fixed  for  the  several  varieties  given 
in  the  table.  Surely  when  we  have  sufficient  data  it  will  be  comparatively 
simple  to  fix  the  ratio  within  reasonable  limits  for  any  particular  variety. 
But  because  of  the  fact  that  the  acid  properties  of  the  grape  juice  will  vary 
much  in  constitution,  the  resultant  by-products  will  vary  likewise  in  the 
diminution  of  acid  strength  which  will  result  from  proper  handling  of  the 
product.  That  is,  the  reduction  of  acid  by  precipitation  of  tartar  and  the 
breaking  up  of  malic  acid,  must  necessarily  depend  upon  the  percentage  of 
these  substances  in  the  total  acid  properties  of  the  fruit  must. 

The  bearing  on  this  point  on  the  wine  produced  is  brought  out  in  the 
subsequent  discussion  under  "Composition  of  Pure  Wines  from  American 
Native  Grapes." 

Table  I  which  follows  presents  the  average  composition,  as  to  the  more 
important  organic  elements,  of  eight  of  our  native  grapes. 


i  s 

3o^.  ..... 


"3  ,;:  co  m  os  oo  t—  oooot-C'ii-Hcoos^^c^oojt-'^co^Jooccooi 

ti^'(Mi-Hi-HiM^H^Ht-li-HCO»JC<I<M^HCOCO^Ha<li-<MO5^COCOCOTjl'»><( 


J 


Q.  H 

< 

K 

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280  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

II.     THE  COMPOSITION  OF  PURE  WINE  FROM  AMERICAN 

NATIVE  GRAPES. 

By  WILLIAM  B.  ALWOOD, 
Stonehenge,  Rio  Road,  Charlottesville,  Virginia. 


The  chemical  composition  of  the  ripe  fruit  of  grapes  does  not  furnish 
sufficient  data  on  which  to  base  a  final  decision  as  to  whether  such  fruit 
will  produce  a  potable  wine.  This  fact  was  in  mind  when  we  began  the 
investigation  of  the  composition  of  the  fruit,  therefore,  wine  was  made  in 
commercial  quantities  from  a  number  of  the  more  important  varieties.  These 
wine  experiments  were  begun  in  1907  with  Norton  grapes  at  Charlottes- 
ville, Virginia,  and  the  work  was  much  extended  in  1909  and  subsequent 
years,  chiefly  at  Sandusky,  Ohio.  The  fruit  for  these  experiments  was  pur- 
chased as  regular  first  grade  fruit  obtained  from  the  stock  found  at  the 
wine  cellars,  or  purchased  from  the  growers.  The  quality  of  the  fruit  used 
was  the  same  as  could  be  secured  by  any  wine  maker  in  the  district.  This 
statement  does  not  imply  that  all  the  crops  of  these  districts  were  equally 
as  good  as  those  purchased  by  us,  but  that  the  fruit  we  used  was  not 
specially  selected.  Naturally,  it  will  occur  that  a  greater  or  less  percentage 
of  the  fruit  will  fall  below  first  grade,  varying  with  the  year. 

A  comparison  of  the  analyses  of  the  fruit  used  in  the  wine  experiments 
with  .the  average  composition  of  the  fruit  samples  given  in  the  study  of 
varieties,  shows  clearly  the  relation  of  this  fruit  to  the  average  composition 
of  a  large  number  of  samples  for  the  same  year.  From  these  analyses  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  25  samples  of  Catawba  examined  in  1908,  84  samples 
examined  both  in  1909  and  1910,  and  28  samples  examined  in  1911,  all  gave 
a  slightly  better  average  composition  than  the  fruit  used  for  the  wine 
samples.  The  Clinton  fruit  samples  for  these  years  on  the  contrary,  show 
an  average  quite  a  little  poorer  than  the  wine  sample.  The  fact  is,  this 
variety  is  grown  only  in  a  small  way  in  Northern  Ohio,  and  samples  fur- 
nished us  by  growers  were,  in  some  instances,  not  fully  wine  ripe. 

For  Concord  the  48  fruit  samples,  examined  in  1909,  were  better  than 
the  fruit  used  for  wine,  while  for  1910  the  30  fruit  samples  examined 
as  fresh  fruit  averaged  poorer  in  sugar  than  the  crop  used  for  wine.  The 
Cynthiana  crop  used  for  wine  and  fruit  samples  of  this  variety  for  1911  are 
practically  identical.  For  Delaware  the  crop  used  for  wine  in  1909  was 
better  than  the  average  of  22  fruit  samples  examined,  but  for  1910  the  fruit 
samples  were  better  than  the  crop  used  for  wine.  The  Ives  crop  used  for 
wine  was  better  than  the  average  of  fruit  samples  for  1909  and  1910, 
but  the  fruit  used  for  wine  in  1911  was  poorer  than  the  average  of  the  fruit 
samples  of  that  year.  The  stock  used  for  Ives  wine  each  year  was  bought 
on  the  floor  of  the  same  winery  and  sent  to  us  without  selection. 

In  case  of  Norton  both  at  Sandusky  and  Charlottesville  the  fruit  used  for 
wine  and  the  average  composition  of  the  fruit  samples  are  practically  alike. 
Thus  it  would  appear  that  the  variety  samples  examined  for  fruit  composi- 
tion and  the  fruit  used  for  the  wine  experiments,  vary  as  might  be  expected 
within  reasonable  limits,  but  show  clearly  that  the  experimental  wines  were 
not  made  from  fruit  of  exceptional  quality. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  281 

The  wines  presented  in  the  table  comprise  samples  from  all  the  varieties 
of  grapes  treated  in  the  paper  on  chemical  composition  of  American  grapes, 
but  in  most  cases  we  have  not  made  wine  from  all  these  varieties  each  year. 
However,  in  a  number  of  instances  we  have  made  several  wine  samples 
with  the  same  variety  in  a  season.  The  data  given  is  from  an  experimental 
wine  which,  in  all  particulars,  is  typical  of  ordinary  wine  manufacture. 

In  these  experiments  the  fruit  was  crushed  by  machines  like  those  used 
in  the  regular  wine  plants.  In  case  of  white  wine,  the  must  was  expressed 
on  a  power  hydraulic  press.  A  dial  gauge  was  used  to  register  the  pressure, 
and  the  pulp  was  exhausted  as  completely  as  possible  at  1,500  pounds  direct 
pressure.  The  fresh  must,  both  free  and  press  musts,  were  then  assembled 
in  casks  in  the  cellar,  where  the  fermentation  was  carried  to  completion 
practically,  as  is  customary,  in  the  cellars.  After  precipitation  was  well 
completed  the  young  wine  was  racked  from  the  lees  and  transferred  to  clean 
casks.  The  quantity  of  the  original  must  used  in  an  experiment  varied  from 
50  to  100  gallons  and  in  some  instances  more. 

In  case  of  red  wines  the  fruit  was  crushed  on  machines  as  given  above 
and  the  pulp  with  the  must  was  transferred  to  vats  on  the  first  floor  of  the 
building.  Here  the  fermentation  was  carried  on  to  a  point  of  attenuation 
such  as  was  thought  proper  to  produce  the  normal  wine  from  the  variety  in 
question.  The  sugar  remaining  in  the  pomace  varied  from  .5  per  cent  to 
1.8  per  cent  of  the  pressed  pomace.  The  chemical  sample  of  the  fresh  fruit 
used  for  both  white  and  red  wines  was  obtained  by  taking  frequent  portions 
of  the  pulp  and  juice  as  it  was  transferred  to  the  vat.  These  portions  were 
mixed  and  then  a  chemical  sample  taken. 

The  young  wine  was  drawn  from  the  vats  when  the  fermentation  had 
reached  the  point  desired  and  the  pulp  was  pressed  thoroughly  on  the 
hydraulic  press  at  1,500  pounds  pressure.  Both  the  free  run  and  the  press 
wine  were  united  in  casks  in  the  cellar  as  the  experimental  wine.  The  casks 
were  given  the  ordinary  care  usual  in  wine  cellars,  and  each  sample  was 
racked  from  the  lees,  after  sedimentation,  during  the  first  winter.  After  this 
the  wines  were  racked  as  conditions  required  to  remove  them  from  any 
sediment  which  precipitated.  None  of  these  samples  have  been  fined,  filtered, 
or  treated  in  any  wise  to  ameliorate  or  alter  their  condition.  They  have 
been  held  strictly  as  chemical  samples  for  the  purpose  of  technical  study. 

The  full  investigation  comprised  a  study  of  the  organic  properties  of 
these  wines  and  complete  ash  analyses,  but  for  the  present  purpose  I  present 
only  the  data  on  specific  gravity,  alcohol,  solids,  sugar  and  total  acid.  Ratios 
of  acid-sugar  in  the  fresh  fruit,  acid-alcohol  and  sugar-alcohol  in  the  dry 
wines  are  given.  My  reason  for  limiting  the  data  presented  at  this  time  is 
that  I  wish  to  treat  only  the  organic  composition  of  these  wines  in  relation  to 
the  fruit  from  which  they  are  derived  without  introducing  other  particulars. 

The  table  presents  first,  the  data  on  the  composition  of  the  fruit  used 
for  each  wine  sample,  and  then  two  analyses  of  the  wine  produced  from  this 
fruit.  The  first  analysis  of  each  wine  represents  the  young  wine  as  soon  as 
fairly  well  sedimented  and  the  second  analysis  given  represents  the  dry  wine. 
The  analytical  results  on  the  wines  are  given  only  for  solids,  sugar,  alcohol 
and  total  acid.  Or,  in  other  words,  each  analysis  covers  these  elements  given 
in  the  analyses  of  the  fruit,  with  the  addition  of  the  determination  of  the 
alcohol  derived  from  the  sugar. 


282  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

The  analyses  of  the  wines  show,  by  noting  the  sugar  content,  that  fer- 
mentation was  completed  promptly  and  that  all  the  wines  were  apparently 
sound  and  normal.  The  alcoholic  strength  is  as  high  as  experience  has 
found  necessary  for  proper  conservation  of  the  wine  in  handling,  except 
for  one  sample  of  Concord  and  three  samples  of  Ives.  But  these  four  excep- 
tions show  alcohol  strength  sufficient  for  ''ordinary"  wine  and  we  have  been 
able  to  hold  such  wines  in  wood  for  two  years  without  material  damage 
from  acetic  fermentation.  The  Delaware  samples  show  alcoholic  strength 
beyond  all  needs  for  preservation.  These  samples  represent  the  complete 
range  of  alcoholic  strength  of  normal  wines  from  American  native  grapes, 
and  cover  a  series  of  years,  hence  we  conclude  that  our  grapes  will  produce 
sufficient  alcohol.  There  is  a  legitimate  demand  for  low  grade  wines  such 
as  are  produced  from  Concord  and  Ives  and  their  blends. 

The  total  acid  found  in  the  dry  wines  of  these  experiments  is  of  the 
most  vital  importance  as  affecting  their  potable  qualities.  For  the  white 
wines,  Catawba,  Delaware  and  lona,  we  know  definitely  the  acid  content  of 
the  composite  of  must  from  which  they  were  made.  Therefore,  the  changes 
which  occurred  in  total  acid  are  clearly  shown  by  the  figures  given  for  total 
acid  found  in  fresh  must  and  that  for  the  wine  at  the  last  analysis.  In  every 
sample  of  the  white  wines  the  acid  has  declined  during  the  fermentation 
and  development  of  the  wine.  This  amounts  in  one  instance  to  .26  grams 
per  100  c.c.  (2.6  parts  per  mille)  and  though  less  for  the  other  samples 
there  is  a  very  sensible  decrease. 

The  acid  content  of  the  red  wines,  Clinton,  Concord,  Cynthiana,  Ives  and 
Norton,  do  not  show  in  every  case  a  less  quantity  in  the  dry  wine  than  the 
young  wine,  but  the  exceptions  are  slight  and  apply  only  to  Concord  1910, 
Cynthiana  1911,  Ives  1910  and  Norton  1907.  This  exception  is  only  apparent. 
If  we  had  an  acid  determination  of  every  sample  just  as  drawn  from  the  vat, 
it  would  show  a  higher  acidity  than  shown  by  the  analysis  of  the  young  wine 
some  weeks  later.  The  acid  determined  in  the  fruit  used,  never  shows  the 
actual  acid  of  a  red  wine  as  drawn  from  the  fermenting  vat  because  the 
process  of  fermentation  extracts  more  perfectly  the  acid  from  the  pulp  than 
can  be  done  in  pressing  a  fresh  sample. 

To  bring  out  the  relation  of  total  acid  to  alcohol  in  the  dry  wines,  a  ratio 
is  given  for  each  analysis.  This  ratio  is  between  total  acid  grams  per  100  c.c. 
and  the  volume  per  cent  of  alcohol.  If  the  acid  were  reduced  to  percentage 
the  ratio  would  be  still  more  striking,  but  as  all  the  ratios  are  calculated  on 
the  same  basis  it  appears  to  fairly  illustrate  the  point  desired,  to  use  the 
ratio  between  gram  weight  of  acid  and  volume  per  cent  of  alcohol  per  100  c.c. 
of  the  wine.  Volume  per  cent  of  alcohol  is  invariably  understood  by  wine 
makers  when  speaking  of  the  strength  of  their  wines,  and  it  is  almost  the 
universal  custom  of  chemists  to  report  results  on  acid  and  sugar  in  grams 
per  100  c.c.,  hence  the  reason  for  using,  in  this  ratio,  the  determinations  as 
above  expressed. 

In  the  white  wines  the  acid-alcohol  ratios  show  a  very  consistent  relation 
for  the  Catawba  samples  covering  the  four  years  of  the  experiments.  The 
sample  for  1909  falls  below  the  other  years,  and  the  sample  for  1911  shows 
the  widest  ratio.  This  latter  crop  was  the  best  wine  stock  of  Catawba  we 
have  thus  far  examined.  lona  gives  an  acid-alcohol  ratio  similar  to  Catawba, 
but  Delaware  shows  a  much  wider  ratio.  In  fact  this  grape  is  rather  deficient 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  283 

in  acid  for  a  sprightly,  agreeable  wine.  The  ratio  for  this  wine  is  about  the 
same  as  some  of  the  richest  wines  of  the  German  Palatinate.  For  the  red 
wines,  the  acid-alcohol  ratios  vary  decidedly;  in  case  of  Clinton  ranging  in 
the  dry  wine  from  1:11.6  to  1:18.1.  Evidently  this  variety  does  not  ripen 
its  fruit  as  evenly  as  Catawba  in  Northern  Ohio  or  else  the  foliage  fails  to 
resist  insect  pests  and  fungus  diseases  and,  therefore,  we  have  the  variation 
in  quality  of  fruit.  The  sample  for  1911,  however,  shows  a  very  favorable 
ratio  of  acid  to  alcohol.  Clinton  must,  when  well  handled,  gives  a  very 
marked  precipitation  of  tartar  during  fermentation  and  aging,  and  con- 
sequent high  loss  of  acid.  Concord  was  only  used  for  wine  experiments 
during  two  years,  and  as  1909  was  a  poor  year  for  quality  we  have  not 
sufficient  data  for  comparison.  It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that  this 
wine  does  not  appear  to  precipitate  much  of  its  acid  properties  during  aging. 

Cynthiana  was  only  used  for  wine  one  year,  viz:  1911,  which  was  the 
most  favorable  year  of  the  series.  Nothing  can  be  said  further  than  to  call 
attention  to  its  wide  acid-alcohol  ratio.  This  is  very  favorable  to  its  use 
as  a  stock  for  blending  with  more  acid  wines.  Ives  was  used  for  three  years 
in  the  experiments  and  shows  a  very  narrow  acid-alcohol  ratio  in  the  dry 
wine.  This  variety,  like  Concord,  does  not  appear  to  precipitate  much  of 
the  acid  properties.  Such  wines  naturally  remain  harsh. 

Norton  was  used  for  wine  experiments  for  two  years  at  Sandusky  and 
three  years  at  Charlottesville.  The  1909  sample  at  Sandusky  was  made  from 
fruit  showing  1.816  grams  of  total  acid,  yet  the  dry  wine  shows  only  .885 
grams  of  acid  and  gives  an  acid-alcohol  ratio  of  1:12.5.  This  is  too  narrow 
but  shows  remarkable  precipitation  of  acid  properties  during  fermentation 
and  maturing.  The  1911  Norton  at  Sandusky  is  a  remarkably  good  sample 
and  shows  acid-alcohol  ratio  of  1:18.6.  The  three  samples  of  Norton  wine 
made  at  Charlottesville  show  a  favorable  acid-alcohol  ratio,  but  in  the  sample 
for  1907  the  narrowing  of  the  ratio  in  the  dry  wine  is  due  to  increase  of  acid 
from  development  of  a  small  amount  of  volatile  acid  and  a  slight  reduction 
of  alcohol.  The  two  other  samples  show  a  very  favorable  acid-alcohol  ratio. 
The  acid-alcohol  ratios  of  these  red  wines  are  again  quite  as  favorable  as 
the  natural  German  wines  and  equal  to  some  of  the  French  wines.  The 
question  of  what  is  normal,  or  rather  an  acceptable  acid-alcohol  ratio  for  a 
potable  wine,  presents  itself  forcibly  in  this  connection.  Certainly  there  is 
no  arbitrary  ratio  which  can  be  applied  to  all  wines.  But  we  should  be 
able  to  arrive  at  fairly  definite  maximum  and  minimum  ratios  for  wines  of 
each  general  class  which  would  be  accepted  by  the  palate  as  agreeable  and 
satisfying. 

The  composition  of  a  large  number  of  German  wines  covering  a  series 
of  years  as  given  by  Koenig,  Volume  I,  4th  edition,  pages  1182-1246,  vary  in 
acid-alcohol  ratio  from  1:10.4  for  Lothringer  white  wines  to  1.16.8  for  Pfalzer 
white  wines,  and  for  red  wines  the  ratio  varies  from  1:9.0  for  Oberhessische 
to  1:24.6  for  Rheinhessische  wines.  A  very  large  number  of  analyses  of 
German  wines  are  given  by  Koenig,  but  the  averages  of  districts  only  were 
compared.  It  is  well  known  that  very  many  of  these  German  wines  are 
sugared.  The  acid-alcohol  ratios  of  these  German  wines  are  so  confusing  by 
reason  of  their  wide  range  that  one  cannot  draw  conclusions  from  them. 
I  have  at  hand  only  a  few  analyses  of  French  white  and  red  dry  wines  of 
the  Bordeaux  district  and  these  show  average  acid-alcohol  ratios  of  1:18.1 


284  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

for  white  wines  and  1:17.7  for  red  wines.  On  the  whole  these  ratios  of 
French  wines  conform  closely  with  what  the  average  taste  of  wine  users 
demands. 

As  a  tentative  proposition  for  dry  still  wines,  I  suggest  as  minimum 
and  maximum  ratios  1:16.0  to  1:20.0.  A  full  bodied  heavy  wine  will  naturally 
carry  the  narrower  acid-alcohol  ratio  while  a  light  thin  wine  should  have 
the  wider  ratio.  Judged  on  the  proposition  advanced  above,  the  pure  dry 
wines  we  have  made  from  American  native  grapes  are  not  as  a  whole  ex- 
cessively acid.  Therefore  their  amelioration  ought  not  to  be  a  difficult  mat- 
ter. The  use  of  a  reasonable  amount  of  sugar  solution  to  accomplish 
amelioration  when  needed  is  warranted,  but  should  be  allowed,  only  under 
control  of  some  adequate  authority  in  order  to  protect  the  legitimate  producer 
as  well  as  the  user. 

As  a  final  comparison  there  is  given  the  ratio  between  the  original  sugar 
determined  in  the  must  and  the  alcohol  determined  at  the  last  analysis  of 
the  wine.  This  sugar-alcohol  ratio  of  the  wine  is  most  interesting.  It  shows 
that  in  most  instances  where  a  variety  has  been  used  for  wine  in  different 
years  we  have  produced  an  almost  identical  quantity  of  alcohol  for  the 
sugar  found  in  the  original  must.  The  value  of  such  a  comparison  in  these 
experiments  is  that  it  furnishes  a  check  upon  the  accuracy  and  similarity  of 
technic  observed  in  making  and  handling  the  wines. 

The  exceptions  to  be  noted  in  regard  to  the  uniformity  of  this  ratio  are, 
in  case  of  Concords,  Ives  and  Norton  where  a  few  aberrations  appear.  The 
most  striking  variant  is  the  Ives  wine  for  1909.  No  explanation  of  these 
variations  can  be  offered  at  this  time.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  white  wines 
ferment  drier  than  the  red  and  give  a  slightly  higher  alcohol  factor. 

The  theoretical  alcohol  to  be  derived  is  found  if  the  percent  of  sugar  in 
the  must  be  multiplied  by  .598.  The  result  of  this  calculation  is  the  alcohol 
volume  per  cent  which  should  be  produced  in  the  wine.  Our  experiments 
show  that  this  factor  cannot  be  exactly  relied  upon  in  practice. 


TABLE  II.  COMPOSITION  OF  PURE  WINES  MADE  FROM  EIGHT  VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  NATIVE  GRAPES. 

;;;i 

:  :  :S 

...»      •  •  •« 

:  :  'IS 

Alcohol,  vol.  %  •   •   •_ 
Total  Sug.  gms. 

:*i  •  • 

of   Fruit   used,  .**  .  I 
Sugar/Acid  •-.  •   • 

Acid-Alcohol 

•" 

*»  •  : 

>«  :  :     :«  :  : 

'  rH      • 

Alcohol,  vol.  %  '  :2S 

•    '?.?. 

:  :»nw 

I    !  °°'  t-        I  .  I  o  »o 

;  ;5s  •  ;ss 

:  :*i<» 

Total      Acid      as££££ 

°,  ;J  2  il  i-2  ?- 

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=  ir.  >:  5c  — 

3-     -,- 

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CNJOO'-'OOlOT-ICOlftlftOeCcOCOlft^HOOOOOOS 

SoSoo«oSoecoSwcDKi«e»«oiSSo 

j   ^        ^H           |r*rtrt           j^,rt^rt 

CMco                —  r.                ooco               t-  os 
•^i^i-it-.      ooooom      orcccoo      occoso 

SrHrHOCO 

f*4-"*4  ' 

eo 
esj  t~  M  i- 

per  100  c.c  

f~~~    •  i 
iscoSS 

gms.  per  100  c.c.g  2  -• 

Sugar  Free  Solids"?* 
gms.  per  100  c.c.***  M  M  ** 

1-1  i-H 

oo 

CM  i-H                    i-H  CM 

:  -  -\  -S.   --. 

oioicNii-J 

dCMrH  iH 

MMMM       CS««M 

Sosoo* 

Total  Solids,  gms.^  •*  M  ' 

tSSjMOO 

CM  C^  O  OS 

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wosSos      SoccS 

per  100  c.c  £JS3WIN 

:  :§3 

•      -<MOO 

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:  :§S     :  :SS 

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I-l  I-l              I-II-I 

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OCC5C5CR         OCiScJ 
O  O  OS  OS        O  O  O  OS 

•  "I*? 

"      "THiH 
O  CO 

oe  ooosec 

1111 

:??? 

Date  Analyzed—.  :^*?* 

•_05C10 

is^S 

i   OON 

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•030500 

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W                          05C50505 

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____        OOOOOOOO 

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C5  05  05  OS 

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05CS03C2         05050505 

05050501 

:   :   :   • 

:       i          i   r  i 

1  1 

Variety  and  Locality 

LTAWBA—  Sandusky,  0. 
fruit  samples  averaged  
ult  used  for  wine  
re  wine  from  above  fruit  
re  wine  from  above  fruit  

JJ 

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5  ?s 

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TABLE  II.  COMPOSITION  OF  PURE  WINES  MADE  FROM  EIGHT  VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  NATIVE  GRAPES. 
(Continued.) 

T>     +• 

:  :  :§ 

Alcohol,  vol.  % 
Total  Sug.  gms. 

Acid-sugar  Ratio 
of   Fruit   used, 
Sugar/  Acid  .... 

Acid-Alcohol 
Ratio  of  Wine, 
Alcohol,  vol.  % 

rH 

I—( 

1-1 

"      "      "  rH 

1-1 

rH            "      "rH 

•2  •  • 

'IN    '    * 

'  00      '      ' 

'  IN      ' 

'  00      '      " 

'  (N      ' 

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'  IN      '      " 

•§    "    ' 

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•     -CO  OS 
•      ;  rHOO 

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rH  <N 

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.  IN  N 

•    -in  co 
I    Ico'in 

rHrH 

•    -*nij    •    •  co  in 

!      I  rH  rH       I      |  IN  rH 

Total     Acid     as 
Tartaric,    gms. 
per  100  c.c  

Sugar  as  Invert, 
gms.  per  100  c.c. 

Sugar  Free  Solids 
gms.  per  100  c.c. 

Total  Solids,  gms. 
per  100  c.c  

Alcohol,  gms.  per 
100  c.c  

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Alcohol,  Per  Cent 
by  Volume  

Specific    Gravity, 
15.6/15.6  

Date  Analyzed 

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.       .       .  —  .  .       .       .CD               •       '       "F-l               •       •       •  Tl               .       >       •—                •       *       •  — 

Sug.-Aico.  Ratio,  •  ;  ;«  i  :  :"     :  :  :"     I::"     :  :  '.**•     :  :  :" 

Alcohol,  vol.  %  •   •   -\1I  •   •   -,lj       •   •   -.li       •   •   -,!<'       •   •   -,li       •   •   -.li 
Total  Sug.  gms. 

CO 

S!                 Acid-sugar  Ratio  :%   :   I  '.%   :   I       ^   '-   '•       1^   -       =5   :   :       :2    :   : 

<               of  Fruit  used,  :«N  :  :  IT;  :  i     :<s  i  :     :«  :  i     :««  :  :     :*»  :  : 

£C                     Sugar/Acid  ....  •  ^   •   •  "  •  ^   •   •       -,!<••       Vi  *  '       •  ^H   •   •       •  ^'   •    • 

o 

UJ  Acid-Alcohol 

*             5SM«  iisS  iiStf    ijSS    i  *S    i  SS    -22 

5                    Acid,  gms  ........  •  -^  :   -^       •   -^       •   -^       •  -^       •   -^^ 

Z 

Total       Acid       as  o»»rtifti-H«oc<i«cocini-He<ioo<MM«  000000*00  LI  o^ot-ocneooo 

<                                                                           '  0»«  00  1-  ^4  i-l  i-l  00  <M  ^  Cl  ^  -M  I-  OC  CT.  -<t«  »«  «0  00  »-  O  W5"  »•*  00-* 

7;                    Tartanc,    gms.  «o  »«  oc_  t-  r-i  oo_  oo  •<»•  oo  «j  <N  01  «»  «  «  oc  oc  i  w  t--  ^  o  os  <»  t-  w  oo  oo  «  i_ve* 

^                    Per  100  c.c  .....  '   '+~~~   '  f  ^  '       "  f  '          '  I*   '         I    '          '  \ 

UJ 

Sugar  as  Invert,  S^2l  §SS§     ^S^l     i2S£8     SSlI     52^1 

^                    gms.  per  100  c.c.  *£       '  SS   '        SJSJ            SS            SJS   '        SJS   ' 

O 

*^                      ^iitrar  TtVpf  Solids  >-<o»Ob-  OCC5COO      •«i<cooco      ooiM^co      •<*«ooe<Ja<i      —  -_r  r.  ri 

UJ                                                          s  L-  L-  oc  ro  -*  -M  t-  32      oo  ^»  »-i  •*      in  «o  oc  o      to  «  ic  <N      t~  «j  o  oo 

—  gms.  per  100  C.C.  c-iri^i^i  •<«!•<«<  m  M      eo«o^<eo      c<i«aeceo      cococo'eo      eoooMej 

UJ 

CC  OCOOi-H  Oi-IOCO        -T  ?1  I-  I-        COMf-HCO        ?C  -»•  t-  11        CC  «O  ft  Ift 

rf                     Total  Solids,  gms.  ooecoco  OOJOM      i-nt-^t-      OO«O<NCO      <M«SOO«O      »it-^ir-i 

>  per  100  c.c  .....  ^S"^  SS**     SJS^     Sw'*"     SS50'"     SSM'" 
I- 

•      •  O5  O  •       -Til-              •       -1-V.              .       -TIC               •       •[-—               •       •   —   — 

bl                Alcohol,  gms.  per  •   -oo  •   .«»-                        -   -ot-       -   .^oj       .   -co^ 

UJ     ^            100  c.c  .............  •   :°°  •  •000°       :   •0iOS       •   :ai°°       •   :SOS       •  •OSOi 

"D 
2        § 

O      c 

a    £      Alcohol,  Per  cent  :  :SS  :  :SS     i  :gg     :  :S2     :  :§g-    :  :SS 

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UJ      O^ 

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Specinc    Gravity,  00005  ooocs     ^0005     ooosos     rH^Hosoi     ooosos 

W                                    15.6/15.6     ........  -J^'-i      '  ^-!-i      '        ^r^^      •        rlrl     '     '        rH'rt     '      '        ^  ,-i      ' 

Z 

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U-oooo  -coeco        -ooosoo        -lAoco        .lAooei        -OOOFH 

Date  Analyzed...  .  i5?0?^  I'T'Tt      :  ,  VT       :  ,  V"?      IT^T      i*?,0? 

DC  .0000  .O<MO        .ooec        .e<ieoi-i         .osi-ii-i        .osoic 

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moo 


288 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


IMPORTANT   FACTORS   GOVERNING   THE   SUCCESSFUL 
TRANSPORTATION  OF  TABLE  GRAPES. 

By  A.  V.  STUBENRAUCH, 

Professor  Pomology  in  the  University  of  California  and  Consulting 
Pomologist  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  investigations  which  form  the  basis  of  the  discussions  in  this  paper 
were  carried  on  while  the  writer  was  associated  with  and  in  charge  of  the 
pomological  investigations  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  They  should,  therefore,  be  credited  to  the 
activities  of  the  National  Department  of  Agriculture  rather  than  to  those  of 
the  University  of  California.  It  is  only  fair  that  this  acknowledgment  be 
made  at  this  time. 

The  table  grape  industry  of  California,  like  all  of  the  fruit  industries 
of  the  State,  is  dependent  upon  a  wide  distribution  of  the  product  for  the 
profitable  sale  of  the  crop.  The  volume  of  production  has  long  ago  passed 
the  point  where  any  large,  proportion  of  the  crop  can  be  consumed  in  the 
markets  of  the  State  or  of  neighboring  States.  The  plantings  are  confined 
to  the  vinifera  or  European  type  of  grapes  mostly  of  the  Flame  Tokay, 
Malaga  and.  Red  Emperor  varieties.  California  has  almost  a  monopoly  of  the 
production  of  this  class  of  fruit  in  the  United  States.  The  problems  of  trans- 
porting the  crops  to  market  are,  therefore,  problems  of  wide  distribution, 
and  the  factors  which  underlie  the  successful  shipment  of  the  fruit  are  of  the 
most  urgent  importance  to  the  growers. 

The  production  of  table  grapes  in  California  has  increased  at  a  very 
rapid  rate  during  the  past  fifteen  years.  Table  I  gives  the  record  of  the 
shipments  for  the  years  1902  to  1914,  inclusive.  In  computing  the  number 
of  crates  980  was  used  as  the  average  number  per  carload,  and  26  pounds 
as  the  weight  per  crate  to  determine  the  number  of  tons. 


Table  I.    Shipments  of  Fresh  Grapes  from  California,  1902-14,  Inclusive. 

Crop  Year  Carloads 

1902... 1,033 

1903 1,804 

1904 1,451 

1905 1,602 

1906 2,052 

1907 3,460 

1908 3,816 

1909 5,875 

1910 4,948 

1911 6,375 

1912 6,355 

1913 6,363 

1914 8,773 


No.  of  25-lb.  Crates 

Tons. 

1,012,340 

13,160 

1,767,920 

22,982 

1,421,980 

18,485 

1,569,960 

20,409 

2,010,960 

26,142 

3,390,800 

44,080 

3,739,680 

48,615 

5,757,500 

74,848 

4,849,040 

63,038 

6,247,500 

81,218 

6,227,900 

80,963 

6,235,740 

81,065 

8,597,540 

111,768 

•    REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  289 

When  the  present  acreage  of  young  vines  reaches  full  bearing  and  the 
new  plantings  come  into  bearing  the  volume  of  shipments  may  exceed 
10,000  carloads  or  about  125,000  tons  per  annum.  The  bulk  of  these  enor- 
mous shipments  must  be  handled  within  a  period  of  six  weeks  to  two  months. 
The  importance  of  finding  available  markets  for  these  large  crops  becomes 
more  pressing  as  production  increases.  It  becomes  necessary  to  extend  the 
area  over  which  the  fruit  may  be  distributed  and  also  as  far  as  possible  to 
lengthen  the  marketing  season  through  cold  storage. 

There  are  two  requisites  for  the  successful  shipment  and  sale  of  fruit: 
(1)  It  must  reach  the  primary  market  in  sound  condition;  (2)  it  must 
have  sufficient  market-holding  quality  after  arrival  in  market  to  enable  it 
to  be  distributed  through  the  various  channels  of  the  wholesale  and  retail 
trade,  and  reach  the  consumer  in  sound  condition.  It  will  be  seen  then  that 
not  only  must  the  fruit  carry  to  market  in  good  condition,  but  it  must 
remain  sound  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  after  it  arrives.  Fruit  which 
must  be  sold  and  consumed  quickly  after  it  arrives  has  only  a  limited  sale 
in  the  primary  or  wholesale  market;  fruit  which  can  be  held  long  enough 
to  be  redistributed  to  surrounding  small  towns  has  a  tremendous  advantage; 
buyers  are  eager  to  obtain  such  fruit  and  are  willing  to  pay  extra  prices 
for  it. 

Experience  in  the  past  has  shown  that  California  table  grapes  cannot 
be  shipped  to  a  number  of  markets  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  the  fruit  does  not  remain  sound  long  enough  to  make  the  trip. 
Experience  has  also  shown  that  during  certain  seasons,  or  from  certain  dis- 
tricts of  the  State  the  grapes  arrive  with  heavy  percentages  of  decay.  The 
time  required  for  the  trip  from  California  to  the  principal  eastern  cities 
ranges  from  eight  to  ten  days.  Sometimes  seventeen  days  are  required  to 
make  the  trip  from  California  to  New  York.  The  last  is  exceptional,  how- 
ever, and  due  to  abnormal  conditions  on  the  transportation  lines.  In  order  to 
reach  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  country,  a  longer  time  is  necessary,  and 
the  shipment  of  grapes  into  this  territory  is  considered  a  risky  undertaking. 

Table  Grape  Transportation   Investigations  of  the  United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture. 

A  few  years  ago  the  grape  growers  and  shippers  of  California  appealed 
to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  to  make  a  careful  study  of 
the  conditions  under  which  the  fruit  was  being  handled  and  shipped  with  a 
view  to  determining  the  causes  of  the  heavy  losses  from  decay  that  fre- 
quently occurred.  The  workers  of  the  Office  of  Field  Investigations  in 
Pomology  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  were  detailed  for  this  work,  and 
a  thorough  study  of  the  methods  of  handling  the  fruit  was  made 
through  four  successive  seasons.  The  influence  of  the  character  of  the 
handling  given  the  fruit  in  preparing  it  for  shipment  was  studied  and 
a  large  number  of  demonstration  shipments  were  made.  This  work  formed 
a  part  of  the  fruit  transportation  and  storage  investigations  of  the  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  which  have  been  under  way  for  a  number  of  years. 
At  the  time  the  grape  investigations  were  begun  in  California  investiga- 
tions of  the  causes  of  the  decay  in  shipments  of  apples,  peaches,  oranges, 
and  lemons  had  been  made  with  the  result  that  a  definite  relationship 


290  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

had  been  found  to  exist  between  the  character  of  the  handling  given 
these  fruits  in  preparing  them  for  shipment  and  their  behavior  while  in 
transit,  in  market  or  in  storage.  It  was  found  that  the  decay  occurring  in 
fruits  was  very  largely  due  to  molds  of  the  type  of  "blue  mold,"  which  have 
not  the  power  of  penetrating  the  sound,  healthy  skin  of  a  fruit.  By  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  decay  was  found  to  be  due  to  common  blue  mold  (Peni- 
cillium),  and  very  careful  study  and  experiment  showed  that  this  fungus  is 
dependent  upon  a  bruise,  abrasion,  break  or  weakness  of  some  kind  in  the 
skin  of  the  fruit  to  gain  entrance  into  and  develop  within  the  tissues.  In  the 
citrus  industry  of  California,  careful  attention  to  the  handling  of  the  fruit, 
and  the  management  of  the  picking  and  packing  operations  in  such  a  way 
that  injury  was  avoided  resulted  in  the  practical  elimination  of  the  decay 
loss. 

While  it  was  realized  from  the  start  that  the  character  of  table  grapes 
is  very  different  from  that  of  citrus  and  other  fruits,  requiring  different  treat- 
ment, there  was  sufficient  evidence  to  indicate  that  the  occurrence  of  decay  in 
grapes  was  also  largely  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  injuries  in  the  grape 
berries,  the  methods  of  handling  them  and  preparing  them  for  shipment,  as 
well  as,  possibly,  upon  the  type  of  package  used.  There  was  no  reason  to 
believe  that  grapes  were  an  exception  to  the  rule  of  relationship  between 
handling  and  carrying  quality. 

A  careful  and  systematic  investigation  of  all  phases  of  grape  handling 
and  shipping  was  made  at  Lodi,  California,  where  the  Flame  Tokay  forms 
the  bulk  of  the  shipments.  The  work  was  continued  through  several  seasons 
in  order  to  overcome  the  results  of  seasonal  variation.  The  method  of  carry- 
ing out  the  work  consisted  in  making  a  careful  comparison  of  grapes  care- 
fully picked  and  packed  by  the  Department  workers  with  the  same  fruit 
picked,  packed  and  handled  by  the  ordinary  workmen.  Both  these  lots  of 
grapes  were  packed  in  the  ordinary  open  crate,  containing  four  five-pound 
or  two  ten-pound  splint  baskets  without  a  filler  of  any  kind.  There  were 
also  included  in  the  experimental  shipments  lots  of  carefully  handled  grapes 
packed  in  tight  boxes  with  a  filler  in  order  to  determine  whether  the  use  of 
a  filler  is  necessary  to  overcome  decay,  or  whether  care  in  handling  is  suffi- 
cient to  eliminate  the  occurrence  of  the  mold.  The  effect  of  holding  the  fruit 
two  or  three  days  before  shipping  was  also  studied,  these  shipments  being 
designated  as  "delayed  shipments."  The  determination  of  the  effect  of  this 
treatment  was  necessary  because  of  the  widespread  practice  of  holding  the 
grapes  for  a  day  or  two  in  order  to  allow  them  to  wilt,  under  the  supposition 
that  this  greatly  facilitates  packing.  A  number  of  these  experimental  series 
of  crates  and  packages  of  grapes  packed  with  a  filler  of  ground  cork  or  red- 
wood sawdust  were  prepared  at  different  vineyards,  located  in  representative 
sections  of  the  district.  The  fruit  picked  and  packed  by  the  ordinary  work- 
men was  designated  as  "commercially  handled,"  and  that  prepared  by  the 
Department  workers  as  "carefully  handled."  The  packages  were  all  loaded 
into  cars  being  shipped  to  New  York,  each  car  having  crates  and  boxes  on 
the  top  and  bottom  tiers  of  the  load.  Upon  arrival  at  New  York,  the  experi- 
mental lots  were  received  by  a  representative  of  the  Department  and  care- 
fully inspected  by  him.  The  inspection  consisted  in  cutting  apart  the 
bunches  and  carefully  segregating  the  decayed  and  injuried  berries  and  those 
which  had  dropped  from  the  stems,  the  last  being  designated  as  "shelled 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  291 

berries."  The  percentages  of  the  decayed,  injured  berries,  and  shelled 
berries  were  determined  by  weight.  At  first  sight  the  determination  by 
weight  may  appear  to  be  only  a  fair  approximation.  A  comparison  of  per- 
centages by  count  and  by  weight  showed,  however,  that  there  was  only  a 
very  slight,  if  any,  difference.  Any  inequalities  due  to  the  method  of  de- 
termining the  decay  practically  disappear  in  the  large  number  of  shipments 
made.  From  twenty  to  thirty  series  were  shipped  each  season.  Inspections 
were  made  on  the  day  the  fruit  arrived  in  New  York  and  on  the  third,  fifth 
and  seventh  days  after  arrival,  the  fruit  being  held,  in  the  meantime,  under 
ordinary  open  market  conditions.  In  this  way  the  effect  of  the  different 
methods  of  treatment  upon  the  market-holding  qualities  as  well  as  upon  the 
shipping  qualities  was  studied. 

Results    of    the    United    States    Department    Investigations. 

Table  II  gives  a  summary  of  three  seasons'  shipping  experiments  and 
shows  the  percentages  of  decay  found  in  the  different  lots  of  grapes  on  the 
day  of  arrival,  and  on  the  third  and  fifth  days  after  arrival.  After  the  first 
season,  the  use  of  redwood  sawdust  was  substituted  for  ground  cork  in  the 
lots  packed  with  a  filler. 

TABLE  II. — Results  of  experiental  shipments  of  Tokay  grapes  during  three 
successive  seasons,  from  Lodi,  California,  to  New  York  City,  showing  the 
average  percentages  of  decay  in  all  shipments  of  commercially  handled 
and  carefully  handled  fruit  on  arrival  and  on  the  third  and  fifth  days 
after  arrival. 

On  3rd  Day      5th  Day 

Arrival          after  after 

Method  of  Packing  at  Arrival      Arrival 

New  York 
%  Decay     %  Decay     %  Decay 

Carefully  handled  with  filler  of  ground  cork *1.6  *4.2  *6.6 

Carefully  handled  with  filler  of  redwood  sawdust  **1.2  **1.8  **2.5 

Carefully  handled  packed  in  crates 3.0  5.4  10.2 

Commercially  handled  packed  in  crates 6.8  10.6  21.8 

*  Ground  cork  used  only  during  one  season. 
**  Average  of  two  seasons. 

The  figures  are  significant  in  that  they  indicate  the  close  relationship 
existing  between  the  type  of  handling  given  the  fruit  in  preparing  it  for 
shipment,  the  type  of  package  used  and  the  occurrence  of  decay  while  in 
transit  to  market  and  after  arrival  in  market.  The  results  also  show  that 
the  effect  of  careful  handling  persists  after  the  fruit  arrives  in  the  market, 
thus  giving  the  lots  packed  without  appreciable  injury  a  tremendous  ad- 
vantage over  those  arriving  with  considerable  deterioration.  Careful  obser- 
vation of  a  large  number  of  the  crates  under  investigation  shows  that  five 
per  cent  decay  is  about  the  limit  of  commercial  soundness.  Percentages  of 
decay  ranging  from  five  to  ten  per  cent  are  noticeable;  above  ten  per  cent 
indicates  that  the  fruit  must  be  used  immediately  and  therefore  must  be 
disposed  of  at  a  forced  sale.  Above  fifteen  per  cent  decay  is  beyond  the 
limits  of  marketable  condition  and  packages  showing  more  than  this  pro- 
portion of  decay  will  not  find  sale  except  at  a  heavy  discount. 


292  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

The  lowest  percentages  of  decay  were  found  in  the  lots  packed  with  a 
filler,  those  with  the  sawdust  filler  arriving  with  less  decay  and  holding  in 
much  better  condition  than  those  packed  in  ground  cork.  This  result  is  con- 
sistent with  experiences  in  the  use  of  this  filler  as  compared  with  ground 
cork  in  a  comprehensive  study  of  the  storage  of  grapes.* 

A  comparison  of  the  carefully  handled  and  the  commercially  handled 
lots  packed  in  crates  shows  that  the  former  arrived  with  less  than  half 
the  percentage  of  decay,  or  three  per  cent  for  the  carefully  handled  as  com- 
pared with  6.8  per  cent  for  the  commercially  handled.  On  the  third  day 
after  arrival,  the  carefuly  handled  lots  had  developed  5.4  per  cent,  about  the 
limit  for  marketable  condition  at  a  fair  price.  On  the  fifth  day  after  arrival, 
the  carefully  handled  fruit  had  reached  the  limit  10.2  per  cent  while  the 
commercially  handled  had  passed  far  beyond  the  limits  of  commercial  sale. 
These  figures,  while  very  impressive,  do  not  really  tell  the  whole  story. 
Included  in  the  averages,  of  the  commercially  handled  are  the  extremes  of 
ordinary  handling.  Many  of  these  reached  as  high  as  fifteen  and  some 
showed  twenty  per  cent  decay  on  arrival,  while  there  were  also  a  few  com- 
mercial lots  which  arrived  with  as  low  or  even  lower  percentages  of  decay 
than  developed  in  the  special  lots  handled  by  the  department  investigators. 

The  Value  of  Careful   Handling* 

Two  questions  naturally  arise:  What  constitutes  careful  handling  and 
will  it  pay  to  go  to  extra  trouble  and  expense  in  preparing  the  fruit  for  ship- 
ment? In  carrying  out  the  investigations,  nothing  was  attempted  in  the 
special  careful  handling  which  would  not  be  practicable  in  ordinary  com- 
mercial practice.  Careful  handling  consisted  in  picking  the  bunches  with 
some  care  to  avoid  bruising  or  crushing  and  all  the  lifting  or  moving  of  the 
bunches  was  done  by  means  of  the  main  stems.  The  bunches  were  carefully 
laid,  not  dropped,  into  the  field  boxes,  which  were  filled  only  one  layer  deep. 
In  moving  the  field  trays  or  boxes,  care  was  used  to  set  them  down  gently 
instead  of  roughly  dropping  or  otherwise  jolting  them.  All  hauling  was 
done  on  wagons  with  springs.  Special  care  was  used  in  "culling"  to  remove 
every  injured  or  otherwise  unsound  berry  and  not  to  injure  others,  always 
as  far  as  possible  handling  the  bunches  by  holding  the  main  stems.  The 
culling  carefully  done,  the  bunches  were  carefully  but  firmly  placed  in  the 
baskets,  always  avoiding  crushing  or  bruising.  About  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
injuries  to  grapes  occur  at  the  pedicels  of  the  berries;  in  some  varieties  a 
slight  bending  aside  of  the  berry  being  all  that  is  necessary  to  cause  a  crack 
or  break  to  occur  beneath  or  at  the  side  of  the  pedicel.  A  very  slight  injury 
is  sufficient  to  allow  the  decay  fungus  to  gain  entrance  into  the  fruit. 

The  most  impressive  answer  to  the  question  relating  to  the  practicability 
of  careful  handling  under  commercial  conditions  is  the  fact  that  many  grow- 
ers are  handling  as  carefully  as  the  Department  investigators  and  their  fruit 
arrives  in  the  market  in  sound  condition. 

In  order  to  show  the  relationship  existing  between  careful  handling  and 
soundness  under  actual  commercial  conditions,  the  data  shown  in  Table  III 
are  presented. 


*  The  results  of  the  grape  storage  investigations  were  published  a  year 
ago  in  Bulletin  35  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  293 

TABLE   III. — Percentages  of  decay  in  Tokay  grapes,  packed  by  careful  and 

careless  handlers,  on  arrival  at  New  York,  and  after  holding   in  market 

one  week. 

Careful  Commercial     Careless  Commercial 
Handling.  Handling. 

%  Decay  %  Decay 

On  arrival  at  New  York 1.0  8.9 

Three  days  after  arrival 2.9  11.5 

Five  days  after  arrival 4.8  24.7 

Seven  days  after  arrival 7.0  30.2 

The  figures  presented  were  all  obtained  from  shipments  of  grapes  packed 
under  commercial  conditions  by  the  ordinary  packers  and  handlers.  The 
lots  were  divided  into  two  classes,  the  subdivision  being  based  upon  the 
character  of  the  work  being  performed.  The  same  number  (5)  of  growers 
or  packers  are  represented  in  each  lot;  therefore  the  figures  are  not  the  ex- 
tremes of  individual  handling  but  are  the  averages  found  in  the  different 
vineyards.  Those  represented  in  the  class  of  careless  handlers  were  found 
to  be  so  by  close  observations  and  those  included  under  the  category  of 
"careful"  handlers  were  likewise  found  to  be  doing  careful  work.  In  this 
connection  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  growers  represented  in  the  "care- 
less" class  consistently  receive  poor  returns  and  their  fruit  was  rated  as 
being  of  poor  carrying  quality,  while  the  fruit  of  the  growers  represented 
in  the  "careful"  class  had  a  reputation  for  uniformly  good  carrying  qualities, 
and  the  return  to  the  growers  were  likewise  high. 

The  figures  presented  in  the  table  show  a  consistent  relationship  be- 
tween the  carrying  and  market-holding  qualities  of  the  fruit  handled  and 
packed  by  the  different  growers.  The  fruit  shipped  by  the  careful  growers 
arrive  in  New  York  with  only  one  per  cent  decay,  while  that  of  the  careless 
packers  showed  8.9  per  cent  decay.  The  former  is  well  within  the  limit  of 
commercial  soundness,  while  the  carelessly  handled  lots  with  an  average  of 
8.9  per  cent  are  near  the  limit  of  commercial  sale,  and  would  have  to  be 
sold  immediately  and  consumed  quickly.  Such  fruit  would  not  find  ready 
sale  except  at  a  low  price. 

The  after-arrival  behavior  of  the  two  classes  of  fruit  is  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  condition  on  arrival,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  possibility 
of  marketing  the  different  lots  to  advantage.  The  lots  packed  by  the  careful 
handlers  had  barely  reached  the  commercial  limit  of  soundness  five  days 
after  arrival,  while  after  the  same  length  of  time  the  carelessly  handled 
lots  had  gone  far  beyond  a  condition  of  marketability.  After  holding  a  week, 
the  carefully  handled  fruit  had  not  reached  the  condition  of  decay  shown  by 
the  carelessly  handled  on  arrival.  The  influence  of  careful  handling  upon 
market-holding  quality  after  arrival  is  thus  effectively  shown.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  superior  market-holding  quality  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized. 

Naturally,  an  increase  in  the  cost  of  handling  is  necessary  in  order  to 
obtain  careful  work.  Just  how  great  an  increase  is  necessary  could  not  be 
determined,  but  the  cost  is  insignificant  when  the  benefits  obtained  are  con- 
sidered. If  the  matter  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  the  difference 
in  decay  between  careful  and  commercial  handling,  the  quantity  of  fruit 
actually  saved  will  more  than  compensate  for  any  increased  cost.  Using  the 


294  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OP  VITICULTURE 

average  percentages  shown  in  Table  II,  the  difference  between  careful  and 
average  commercial  handling  is  3.8  per  cent.  This  means  a  saving  of  nearly 
the  equivalent  in  four  crates  of  fruit  in  each  hundred  shipped.  In  a  carload 
the  saving  would  be  about  thirty-six  crates,  or  expressing  it  in  terms  of  car- 
loads, the  difference  amounts  to  a  loss  of  fruit  equal  to  one  car-load  in 
twenty-seven  and  a  half.  If  the  figures  given  in  Table  III  are  used  in  making 
a  similar  comparison,  the  showing  is  even  more  impressive,  especially  as  the 
data  were  all  obtained  from  lots  of  fruit  handled  under  actual  commercial 
conditions.  The  difference  in  the  average  percentages  of  decay  found  in  the 
carefully  and  carelessly  handled  lots  of  Table  III  is  7.9  per  cent,  or  a  saving 
of  nearly  eight  crates  in  each  hundred,  nearly  seventy-eight  crates  in  each 
car-load,  or  a  loss  of  one  car-load  in  twelve  and  a  half.  The  savings  by 
avoiding  these  losses  can  be  computed  in  terms  of  money  value,  but  a  much 
larger  return  is  obtained  in  the  value  of  a  good  reputation  for  soundness 
which  lots  arriving  consistently  with  only  slight  decay  and  holding  in  sound 
condition  after  arrival  soon  attain  with  the  buyers.  The  value  of  such  a 
reputation  cannot  be  determined  in  actual  money  value.  It  is  easy  to  see, 
however,  that  it  means  a  premium  either  in  increased  demand  or  a  price  in 
excess  of  ordinary  market  quotations.  Instead  of  doubting  the  profitable- 
ness or  wisdom  of  handling  with  sufficient  care  to  insure  arrival  in  sound 
condition,  one  may  wonder  whether  in  the  long  run  it  will  pay  to  handle  in 
any  other  way. 


Influence  of  Handling  Methods  on  the  Occurrence  of  Decay  in  Different  Parts 
of  the  Refrigerator  Car. 

The  data  obtained  from  the  experimental  shipments  may  be  analyzed  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  relationship  between  handling  methods  and  decay  found 
in  different  parts  of  the  car.  As  is  well  known,  fruit  which  is  shipped  in  the 
upper  tiers  of  the  load  do  not  carry  as  well  as  that  which  is  placed  at  or 
near  the  floor.  The  commercial  grape  crate  measures  five  inches  in  depth 
or  height,  and  in  order  to  obtain  the  minimum  car-load  weight  required  by 
the  transportation  lines,  the  crates  must  be  stacked  nine  high.  These  layers 
are  designated  as  tiers,  those  on  the  floor  are  known  as  the  first  tier,  those 
on  top  the  ninth  or  top  tier.  In  the  experimental  shipments  each  series  had 
crates  on  the  first  and  ninth  tiers  or  on  the  bottom  and  top  tiers  of  the  load. 
On  account  of  the  limitations  of  traffic  requirements  and  expense,  it  has 
not  been  practicable  to  construct  refrigerator  cars  for  general  use  along  the 
most  efficient  lines,  or  to  use  the  highest  type  of  insulation.  In  the  cars  at 
present  in  use,  there  is  a  considerable  heat  leakage  through  the  walls  of  the 
car  and  this  heat  affects  the  air  of  the  car,  the  warmer  air  rising  to  the  top 
and  accumulating  in  a  stratum  above  the  fruit.  The  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  car  is  further  aggravated  by  the 
sluggish  circulation  of  the  air  within  the  car.  The  refrigeration  or  cooling 
of  the  car  and  its  contents  depends  upon  the  natural  circulation  of  the  air 
within  the  car  due  to  the  difference  in  temperature  of  the  air  currents  in  the 
ice  bunkers  and  in  the  body  of  the  car.  The  refrigerator  cars  now  in  use  in 
the  United  States  are  equipped  with  end  ice  bunkers  of  a  combined  capacity 
of  five  tons  of  ice.  When  the  bunkers  are  filled  with  ice,  the  cold  air  within 
the  bunkers  flows  downward,  creating  a  current  through  the  ice.  This  cold 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  295 

current  flows  outward  along  the  floor  of  the  car,  and  absorbs  heat  from  the 
fruit  packages.  As  it  warms  it  rises  to  the  top  of  the  car  and  circulates  back 
to  the  ice  bunkers  where  it  is  again  cooled  by  the  ice.  The  rapidity  of  the 
circulation  of  the  air  currents  within  the  car  is  thus  greatest  at  the  beginning 
when  the  difference  in  temperature  of  the  car  within  the  bunker  and  the  car 
body  is  greatest.  As  the  fruit  cools  this  temperature  difference  becomes  less, 
and  the  movement  of  the  air  currents  becomes  more  sluggish.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  air  is  always  considerably  (5°  to  10°)  higher  at  the  top  of 
the  load,  and  the  fruit  on  the  top  tiers  of  the  load  is  thus  subjected  to  a 
considerably  higher  temperature  while  en  route  than  the  fruit  on  or  near 
the  floor. 

The  fruit  from  the  top  tiers  frequently  arrives  in  market  showing  con- 
siderable deterioration  while  that  from  the  bottom  tiers  may  be  in  sound 
condition.  For  this  reason,  growers  prefer  to  have  their  fruit  loaded  on  the 
bottom  layers  or  tiers,  and  shipping  companies  have  difficulty  at  times  in 
satisfying  all  their  patrons.  Obviously,  all  can  not  have  their  crates  placed 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  load.  When  the  investigations  of  the  decay  in  grapes 
were  begun,  some  objections  were  made  by  shipping  companies  against  a 
study  of  the  behavior  of  fruit  loaded  on  the  bottom  and  on  the  top  tiers,  on 
the  ground  that  the  results  might  increase  their  difficulty  in  satisfying  the 
owners  of  fruit  which  had  to  be  loaded  on  the  top  layers.  Instead  of  in- 
creasing the  difficulty  of  shippers  in  this  respect,  the  results  are  really 
beneficial  in  that  they  show  that  the  difference  in  temperature  is  not  the 
only  factor  governing  the  difference  in  the  condition  of  the  fruit.  This  is 
conclusively  shown  when  the  results  are  analyzed.  Table  IV  shows  the 
average  percentages  of  decay  found  in  crates  of  Tokay  grapes  loaded  on  the 
bottom  and  top  tiers  of  the  loads  in  all  the  shipments  made  during  an  entire 
shipping  season.  The  "Commercially  Handled"  lots  were  those  obtained  from 
ordinary  shipments,  the  "Carefully  Handled"  were  picked  and  packed  by  the 
Department  investigators. 

TABLE  IV. — Average  percentages  of  decay  in  commercially  handled  and 
carefully  handled  Tokay  grapes,  packed  in  crates,  loaded  on  the  bottom 
and  top  tiers  in  refrigerator  cars,  and  shipped  to  New  York  City. 

Carefully  Handled  Commercially  Handled 

Bottom  Top  Bottom  Top 

Tier  Tier  Tier  Tier 

%  Decay  %  Decay  %  Decay  %  Decay 

On  arrival  at  New  York 0.6  1.4  3.6  8.4 

Three  days  after  arrival 1.8  _2.2  7.2  11.1 

Five  days  after  arrival 3.5  6.7  12.0  19.2 

Seven  days  after  arrival 5.0  12.5  15.2  19.8 

The  figures  shown  in  Table  IV  are  presented  to  establish  the  general 
principle  that  the  type  of  handling  given  the  fruit  in  preparing  it  for  ship- 
ment ha^;  an  important  influence  upon  its  behavior  under  the  varying  condi- 
tions of  temperature  within  a  refrigerator  car.  While  there  is  higher  decay 
on  the  top  tier  of  the  load  both  in  the  fruit  given  ordinary  commercial  hand- 
ling and  that  handled  with  special  care,  the  results  obtained  from  the  ex- 
perimental shipments  show  that  the  difference  between  top-  and  bottom-tier 


296  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

fruit  is  much  greater  under  ordinary  commercial  handling  than  in  the  care- 
fully handled  lots.  The  latter  arrived  in  excellent  condition  on  the  top  tier 
(0.6  per  cent)  as  well  as  on  the  bottom  (1.4  per  cent).  Under  ordinary 
commercial  handling  only  the  packages  loaded  on  the  bottom  tiers  arrived 
with  a  decay  percentage  (3.G  per  cent)  below  the  commercial  limit.  The  top- 
tier  fruit  with  8.4  per  cent  decay  was  beyond  the  five  per  cent  limit,  and  was 
fit  for  only  immediate  sale  and  consumption.  Looking  at  the  figures  pre- 
sented from  another  standpoint  it  will  be  seen  that  the  carefully  handled 
fruit  carried  better  and  held  in  market  after  arrival  in  much  better  condition 
when  loaded  on  the  top  tier  than  the  commercially  handled  lots  loaded  in 
the  more  favorable  position  at  the  floor  of  the  car. 


TABLE  V. — Average  percentages  of  decay  in  Tokay  grapes  under  careful  and 
careless  commercial  handling  loaded  on  the  top  and  bottom  tiers  of  re- 
frigerator cars  and  shipped  to  New  York. 

Careful  Commercial  Careless  Commercial 

Handling  Handling 

Bottom  Top  Bottom         Top 

Tier  Tier  Tier          Tier 

%  Decay     %  Decay  %  Decay     %  Decay 

On  arrival  at  New  York 1.3  1.8  6.7  12.1 

Three  days  after  arrival 2.2  4.8  10.5  17.3 

Five  days  after  arrival 4.3  7.1  14.3  28.9 

Seven  days  after  arrival 7.3  9.3  25.2  35.2 

Table  V  is  compiled  from  the  records  obtained  entirely  from  shipments 
of  fruit  given  ordinary  commercial  handling.  The  lots  were  divided  into  two 
classes,  those  from  packers  handling  carefully  and  those  packed  by  more  or 
less  careless  growers  and  packers.  The  same  number  of  shipments  from  the 
same  number  of  growers  are  included  in  each  class.  A  glance  at  the  figures 
in  the  table  is  sufficient  to  indicate  the  consistency  of  the  results  with  those 
presented  in  Table  IV.  There  is  a  very  wide  difference  between  carelessly 
handled  fruit  loaded  at  the  top  and  bottom  tiers  of  the  car,  while  the  differ- 
ence is  much  less  or  only  slight  with  carefully  handled  lots. 

These  figures  show  the  important  influence  the  type  of  handling  given 
the  grapes  in  preparing  them  for  shipment  has  upon  their  carrying  and 
market-holding  qualities.  Moreover,  the  effect  of  the  higher  temperature  at 
the  top  of  the  car  is  more  unfavorable  in  fruit  under  conditions  of  careless 
handling  than  is  the  case  with  carefully  handled  fruit.  In  other  words  the 
difference  between  the  top  and  bottom  tiers  in  the  cars  becomes  of  less  im- 
portance when  the  fruit  is  packed  without  injury.  From  the  standpoint  of 
the  commercial  shipper,  these  results  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  If  he 
could  be  sure  that  all  of  the  grapes  offered  him  for  shipment  were  packed 
without  appreciable  injury,  he  need  not  question  whether  they  were  placed 
on  the  bottom  or  top  tiers  of  the  load. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  297 

PRE-COOLING. 

The  term  "Pre-cooling"  has  been  applied  to  a  system  of  preparing  fruits 
for  shipment  in  which  the  initial  temperature  is  reduced  promptly  and 
rapidly  in  advance  of  shipment.  Probably  no  innovation  in  the  handling  of  a 
food  product  has  received  wider  discussion  than  has  the  use  of  pre-cooling 
since  the  work  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  first  brought 
it  prominently  to  the  attention  of  fruit  growers  about  eleven  years  ago.  The 
first  application  of  pre-cooling  to  fruits  was  made  by  Parker  Earle,  the 
pioneer  shipper  of  fruits  under  refrigeration  in  1866,  in  cooling  strawberries 
before  loading  them  for  shipment  from  southern  Illinois  to  Chicago.  This 
first  work  was  done  by  placing  the  packages  of  berries  in  an  iced  chamber 
until  they  were  thoroughly  chilled.  Mr.  Earle  reports  that  his  first  efforts 
along  this  line  were  very  satisfactory,  but  on  account  of  the  lack  of  refrige- 
rator car  equipment,  the  extension  of  the  process  was  not  very  rapid.  The 
next  step  in  the  application  of  pre-cooling  to  fruit  shipments  was  begun  by 
Powell,  then  in  charge  of  the  United  States  Department  Fruit  Transporta- 
tion and  Storage  Investigations,  in  the  experimental  pre-cooling  of  peaches 
shipped  from  Georgia.  This  work  was  begun  in  1904.  The  results  were  very 
encouraging  and  showed  that  with  proper  cooling  and  equipment  peaches 
from  Georgia  could  be  transported  to  New  York  with  minimum  decay  and 
deterioration.  The  investigations  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  were 
later  extended  to  oranges  and  other  fruits  in  California,  and  the  work  is  still 
in  progress  with  other  fruits.  The  process  of  pre-cooling  has  received  rather 
wide  commercial  application,  especially  in  California,  where  both  the  South- 
ern Pacific  and  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  Systems  have  constructed  large  plants 
for  the  pre-cooling  of  fruit  after  loading  on  the  cars.  In  addition,  a  number 
of  plants  designed  to  pre-cool  the  fruit  before  loading  have  been  erected  by 
associations  of  fruit  growers,  chiefly  in  southern  California  for  the  pre- 
cooling  of  oranges. 

Systems  of  Pre-cooling. 

There  are  two  systems  of  pre-cooling:  (1)  Car  Pre-cooling,  and  (2) 
Warehouse  Pre-cooling. 

In  the  car  pre-cooling  system,  the  cooling  is  accomplished  by  forcing 
large  volumes  of  very  cold  air  through  the  loaded  cars. 

The  warehouse  system  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  cooling 
is  done  in  warehouse  rooms,  with  special  refrigerating  capacity,  before  the 
fruit  is  loaded. 

It  will  not  be  possible  to  give  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  relative  merits 
of  the  two  systems.  It  will  be  easily  seen  that  the  car  pre-cooling  system 
is  the  function  of  the  transportation  lines,  as  it  necessarily  involves  the 
handling,  switching,  and  movement  of  cars  and  trains.  It  also  requires 
machinery  of  very  large  capacity  in  order  to  do  the  work  as  rapidly  as 
possible. 

The  warehouse  system  is  the  only  one  which  can  be  operated  advantage- 
ously by  the  grower  or  packer  or  associations  of  growers  or  packers.  Its 
only  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  fruit  must  be  given  an  extra 


298 


INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


handling.  This  is  wholly  overcome,  however,  by  the  advantage  of  more 
uniform  cooling  and  more  prompt  application  of  the  process  than  is  practi- 
cable with  the  car  cooling  system. 

Investigations  of  the  Effect  of  Pre-cooling  on  Table  Grapes. 

The  effect  of  pre-cooling  on  grapes  was  thoroughly  studied  by  the  De- 
partment investigators  during  several  seasons  at  Lodi,  and  one  season  at 
Fresno,  California.  During  three  seasons  at  Lodi,  the  pre-cooling  was  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  portable  refrigerating  outfit  constructed  by  the  De- 
partment. The  work  of  these  three  seasons  was  confined  to  car  pre-cooling. 
The  plan  followed  was  to  circulate  cold  air  through  the  loaded  car  until  the 
average  temperature  of  the  fruit  in  the  car  reached  about  40°  F.  In  each  car 
cooled  by  the  Department  men,  a  series  of  marked  crates  were  placed,  some 
on  the  bottom  and  some  on  the  top  tiers  of  the  load.  After  the  cooling  was 
finished  the  cars  were  forwarded  to  New  York,  where  the  marked  crates 
were  carefully  inspected  by  Department  representatives  and  the  decay  was 
carefully  determined.  Duplicate  series  of  crates  of  grapes  from  the  same 
vineyards  were  placed  and  shipped  in  non-precooled  cars  to  serve  as  checks. 
Not  less  than  ten  cars  were  thus  handled  each  year. 

In  Table  VI  the  data  obtained  from  the  three  years  shipments  are  pre- 
sented together  with  the  corresponding  records  obtained  from  the  non-pre- 
cooled check  shipments.  The  percentages  of  decay  found  on  arrival  at  New 
York  and  two  and  three  days  after  arrival  are  shown,  the  fruit  being  held  in 
the  meantime  under  ordinary  market  conditions. 


TABLE  VI. — Average  percentages  of  decay  in  pre-cooled  and  non-pre-cooled 
commercially  handled  Tokay  grapes,  shipped  during  three  seasons  from 
Lodi,  California,  to  New  York  City. 


Pre-Cooling 


Non-Pre-Cooled 


On 

Arrival 
%  Decay 

First   Season 6.6 

Second  Season 7.5 

Third    Season 6.5 

Averages 6.5 


2  Days 

4  Days 

2  Days 

4  Days 

After 

After 

On 

After 

After 

Arrival 

Arrival 

Arrival 

Arrival 

Arrival 

&  Decay 

%  Decay 

%  Decay 

%  Decay 

%  Decay 

12.7 

16.8 

7.5 

10.9 

15.1 

11.1 

15.1 

8.7 

12.2 

17.5 

12.2 

1G.7 

8.1 

12.8 

17.0 

12.0 


16.2 


1,1 


12.0 


16.5 


Only  the  records  obtained  from  the  cooling  and  shipment  of  commer- 
cially handled  crates  are  presented  because  it  is  the  effect  of  the  treatment 
upon  the  carrying  and  market-holding  qualities  of  the  fruit  handled  under 
ordinary  methods  of  packing  that  interests  the  growers.  It  has  already 
been  shown  what  can  be  accomplished  through  the  medium  of  careful  hand- 
ling alone.  The  additional  application  of  pre-cooling  to  carefully  handled 
grapes  is  an  added  safe-guard.  But  the  effect  on  fruit  packed  and  shipped 
under  ordinary  commercial  conditions  is  the  crucial  test  of  the  value  of  the 
work. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  299 

The  averages  for  the  three  seasons  show  remarkable  uniformity  through- 
out. The  grand  averages  for  all  shipments  of  the  three  years  are  an  index 
of  the  effect  of  the  pre-cooling  treatment  upon  this  class  of  fruit.  The 
differences  in  percentages  of  decay  are  only  slight,  although  in  favor  of  the 
pre-cooled  lots.  The  decay  in  all  lots  is  too  high  for  good  marketable  condi- 
tion. The  average  percentages  found  in  the  fruit  two  days  after  arrival  are 
identical,  and  after  four  days  very  nearly  identical  in  pre-cooled  and  non- 
pre-cooled  shipments.  The  slight  difference  between  6.5  per  cent  and  8.1  per 
cent  in  favor  of  the  pre-cooled  shipments  on  arrival  is  not  sufficient  to  justify 
the  extra  expense  of  the  pre-cooling  process,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
effect  upon  the  carrying  quality  of  the  fruit.  In  fact,  in  a  number  of  indi- 
vidual shipments  the  average  percentages  of  decay  were  actually  higher  than 
was  found  in  corresponding  non-pre-cooled  shipments.  This  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  that  the  pre-cooling  of  grapes  is  harmful.  It  does  mean  that 
there  are  other  factors  which  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  pre- 
cooling  alone  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  avoid  excessive  deterioration  in 
grape  shipments. 

One  possible  explanation  for  the  increase  in  decay  in  pre-cooled  ship- 
ments over  non-pre-cooled  and  the  slieht  differences  shown  in  the  averages 
was  thought  to  be  the  uneven  cooling  which  necessarily  takes  place  in  the 
cooling  of  the  different  parts  of  the  car  after  it  is  loaded.  It  is  easy  to  see 
that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  have  the  air  blast  reach  uniformly  to  all 
parts  of  the  load.  The  crates  must  be  closely  stacked,  thus  interfering 
materially  with  the  circulation  of  the  air  currents  within  the  car.  The  fruit 
most  exposed  to  the  blast  will  be  cooled  below  the  freezing  point  of  the  fruit 
long  before  the  crates  in  the  body  of  the  load  are  materially  affected.  There- 
fore, as  soon  as  the  exposed  crates  reach  the  danger  point,  the  work  must 
cease.  Equalization  of  the  temperature  conditions  must  then  be  depended 
upon  to  bring  the  average  temperature  of  the  load  down  to  the  desired 
point.  It  is  conceivable  that  the  extra  cooling  and  following  rise  in  tempera- 
ture might  be  detrimental  to  the  keeping  quality  of  the  affected  packages. 
It  has  not  been  possible  actually  to  test  this  hypothesis  by  experimental  data. 
During  one  season,  however,  a  comparison  of  car  pre-cooling  with  the  ware- 
house system  was  made,  but  the  results  did  not  show  that  there  was  any 
material  gain  by  handling  the  fruit  in  this  way. 

Later  investigations  of  the  temperature  conditions  within  the  refrige- 
rator cars  while  en  route  indicate  that  the  relative  inefficiency  of  the  insula- 
tion used  in  the  cars  may  be  responsible  for  the  inconsistent  results.  Tem- 
perature records  taken  of  cars  en  route  show  that  there  is  a  considerable 
leakage  of  heat  through  the  insulation,  resulting  in  a  rather  rapid  warming- 
up  of  the  fruit  on  the  top  tiers.  The  rise  in  temperature  on  these  top  tiers 
is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  increase  in  the  decay,  especially  where  the 
fruit  has  not  been  handled  with  sufficient  care  to  prevent  injury.  A  better 
type  of  refrigerator  car  with  better  insulation  is  a  necessity  before  the  full 
benefits  of  pre-cooling  can  be  obtained. 

The  most  impressive  lesson  to  be  derived  from  these  rather  negative 
results,  however,  is  the  fact  that  pre-cooling  cannot  replace  proper  handling. 
It  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  offset  the  decay  which  inevitably  follows  in 
juries  to  the  fruit.  It  is  more  expensive  than  careful  handling,  and  in  addi- 
tion is  less  efficient  in  preventing  decay.  Pre-cooling  is,  however,  a  legiti- 


300  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

mate  and  effective  added  insurance  against  decay  due  to  many  unforeseen 
conditions  arising  while  the  car  is  in  transit,  and  from  that  standpoint  is 
alone  worth  while;  but  in  no  sense  can  it  be  regarded  as  a  substitute  for 
proper,  careful  handling  methods. 

Local   Demonstrations. 

A  duplicate  of  each  of  the  experimental  series  shipped  to  New  York  was 
prepared  and  held  in  a  refrigerator  car  side-tracked  at  Lodi,  and  iced  as  far 
as  possible  to  imitate  actual  transit  conditions.  The  different  lots  were  held 
in  the  iced  car  for  a  period  of  ten  days,  the  average  time  of  the  transconti- 
nental trip.  The  series  were  then  withdrawn  and  a  careful  inspection  and 
determination  of  the  decay,  injuries  and  shelled  berries  were  made  just  as 
was  done  in  New  York  with  the  fruit  actually  shipped.  Inspections  were 
likewise  made  on  the  third,  fifth  and  seventh  days  after  withdrawal  from  the 
car.  This  local  demonstration  was  made  in  order  to  enable  the  growers  and 
packers  actually  to  see  the  condition  of  the  fruit  handled  in  different  ways. 
The  plan  followed  was  to  invite  the  growers  and  packers  to  see  the  inspec- 
tions and  demonstrations.  Very  few  of  the  growers  and  fewer  of  the  packers 
ever  have  the  opportunity  of  seeing  the  condition  of  their  fruit  after  it  has 
been  through  the  period  necessary  to  reach  distant  markets.  Many  ex- 
pressed disbelief  in  the  occurrence  of  decay  in  their  fruit,  thinking  that  the 
reports  of  losses  due  to  this  cause  were  mere  subterfuges  on  the  part  of 
the  receivers  and  purchasers  of  the  fruit  to  depress  the  prices  paid  the 
producer. 

The  demonstrations  of  packed  fruit  handled  in  different  ways  were 
attended  by  hundreds  of  growers  and  packers  during  the  shipping  seasons, 
and  for  the  time  being,  at  least,  the  great  differences  shown  in  the  lots 
handled  in  different  ways  served  as  very  impressive  object  lessons. 

This  form  of  local  demonstration  was  found  to  be  an  effective  means  of 
impressing  upon  the  various  agencies  engaged  in  the  activities  of  grape 
growing,  packing  and  shipping  the  importance  and  significance  of  the  lessons 
learned  from  the  results  of  the  work.  As  stated  above,  many  doubted  the 
existence  or  occurrence  of  decay.  Those  who  were  in  a  position  to  know 
that  decay  occurred,  frequently  accepted  it  as  the  inevitable,  which  like  the 
Scourges  of  Old  were  to  be  accepted  with  Christian  fortitude  and  meekness. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  little  or  no  impression  could  have  been  made  upon  the 
industry  without  those  engaged  in  the  various  operations  having  an  oppor- 
tunity actually  to  see  the  results  and  judge  for  themselves  the  importance 
of  the  various  factors  brought  out.  There  is  nothing  like  an  ocular  demon- 
stration in  impressing  the  layman. 

It  was  thus  the  policy  of  the  Department  investigators  to  keep  the  in- 
dustry fully  acquainted  with  the  progress  of  the  work  and  the  results  were 
imparted  just  as  rapidly  as  accurate  and  consistent  records  were  obtained. 
In  addition  to  the  ocular  demonstrations  referred  to,  meetings  were  held  at 
the  close  of  the  seasons,  and  in  these  sessions  the  results  were  fully  ex- 
plained to  the  assembled  growers.  The  data  were  carefully  analyzed  and 
systematized  and  the  importance  of  the  various  facts  resulting  therefrom 
were  fully  discussed.  Graphic  presentations  of  the  data,  arranged  and  com- 
pared from  different  viewpoints  were  used  in  the  discussion.  This  was  found 
to  be  a  most  effective  method  of  presentation  as  in  no  other  way  could  the 
relationships  of  the  various  factors  be  so  clearly  shown. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  301 


THE  INTELLIGENT  BLENDING  OF  WINES. 

By  HIRAM  S.  DEWEY, 
President  of  the  American  Wine  Growers'  Association. 


The  blending  of  wines  is  really  the  art  of  wine-making,  which  comes  to 
a  few  men  after  many  years  of  practical  experience.  I  once  heard  a  German, 
80  years  old,  who  had  been  a  wine-maker  all  his  life,  say,  "A  man  must  live 
with  his  wines  as  a  mother  lives  with  her  baby,  to  know  them  thoroughly. 
Wine  is  ever  changing  as  a  baby  does  as  it  grows." 

I  am' not  referring  to  wines  which  are  made  in  great  vats  of  thousands 
of  gallons,  but  wines  that  are  made  in  small  quantities,  such  as  Chateau 
wines  of  France,  or  the  Schloss  wines  of  Germany  or  private  estate  wines 
of  Italy,  where  grapes  are  gathered,  sorted  and  stemmed  most  carefully, 
then  fermented  in  small  standards  where  they  can  be  turned  three  times 
daily  to  thoroughly  dissolve  the  pulp  and  skins,  in  order  to  extract  the 
proper  color,  acid  and  tannin  and  watch  the  development  of  the  Oenanthic 
ethers,  which  come  suddenly,  and  when  they  come  the  juice  must  be  pressed 
at  once  (not  to  lie  over  night)  as  these  ethers  pass  off  quickly,  then  your 
wine  will  be  soft  and  delicate  in  bouquet.  This  is  not  determined  by 
chemistry. 

Understand  me,  I  am  not  underrating  the  advantages  or  requirements  of 
the  chemist,  for  his  science  is  absolutely  necessary  in  the  large  wine  cellars, 
but  quoting  from  Prof.  Bigelow,  the  first  assistant  chemist  of  Dr.  H.  W. 
Wiley,  while  he  was  the  head  of  the  United  States  Food  Laboratory,  Prof. 
Bigelow  remarked  to  me: 

"What  we  need  greatly  in  this  laboratory  is  a  wine-maker  with  a  culti- 
vated taste  and  smell.  Chemistry  carries  us  just  so  far  and  no  farther,  when 
we  are  dropped  off  as  from  a  precipice.  We  require  a  cultivated  sense  of 
smell  and  taste  to  determine  the  excess  or  lack  of  different  properties  in  a 
wine,  and  what  different  varieties  of  grapes  or  wines  will  blend  or  marry, 
so  as  to  develop  into  a  fine  wine." 

We  should  realize  the  necessity  of  blending  wines  from  different  sec- 
tions. California  grapes  in  general  are  high  in  saccharine  and  low  in  acid; 
some  grapes  are  very  strong  in  bouquet,  others  flat.  So  with  Eastern  grapes, 
most  of  them  are  high  in  tartaric  acid  and  disproportionately  low  in 
saccharine. 

Our  most  valuable  grapes  in  the  East,  for  which  we  pay  $80  to  $100  a 
ton,  are  very  small  berries  with  large  seeds  and  very  little  juice,  where  it 
takes  from  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  to  get  one  gallon  of  juice.  This  I 
know  astonishes  some  of  the  gentlemen  within  the  sound  of  my  voice.  They 
may  say  how  foolish  to  pay  such  prices  for  grapes.  No,  gentlemen,  we  are 
not  foolish.  This  wine  is  our  doctor,  it  is  not  good  alone,  but  how  a  little 
of  it  helps  and  lifts  up  the  wreakling,  experience  of  years  only  can  tell.  The 
American  wine  business  will  never  reach  the  high  standard*  and  reputation 
of  European  wines  until  we  realize  that  fine  wines  must  be  made  and  aged 
with  constant  watchful  care  and  blending  in  small  quantities. 


302  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Many  of  you  remember  how  your  former  president,  Mr.  Percy  T.  Morgan, 
spent  years  in  selecting  choice  wines  and  had  them  given  the  most  careful 
and  watchful  care,  then  had  them  bottled  and  stored  away  in  one  of  your 
cellars  here  in  San  Francisco,  to  age  in  the  bottle,  when  your  dreadful  fire 
destroyed  all  of  his  years  of  labor.  That  was  one  of  the  greatest  calamities 
that  ever  visited  the  California  wine  business,  as  he  intended  to  distribute 
these  choice  wines  in  the  large  cities,  in  wine  stores,  not  saloons.  This  is 
what  we  have  been  doing  for  years. 

I  wish  to  quote  a  few  extracts  from  the  official  report  of  Cav.  Guido 
Rossati,  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Horticulture,  who  spent  several  years 
in  America  under  pay  of  the  Italian  government,  to  report  on  the  grape  grow- 
ing and  wine  making  of  America. 

"I  was  surprised  at  the  fineness  of  two  types,  which  I  must  confess  I 
never  expected  to  find  in  wines  made  from  American  grapes.  One  is  a  Bur- 
gundy, eight  or  ten  years  old,  made  from  Cynthiana  grapes,  the  equal  of 
which  I  never  found  in  any  part  of  the  United  States.  The  other  is  a  Port, 
greatly  superior  to  those  produced  in  any  other  part  of  the  United  States. 

"By  the  most  careful  and  strict  cleanliness  in  the  fermentation,  wine 
making  and  technical  operation,  and  by  long  aging  of  their  product,  thus 
helping  and  not  coercing  nature,  or  substituting  artificial  means,  which  ex- 
perience has  proved  of  limited  benefit  and  not  desirable. 

"They  have  in  a  special  way  the  merit  of  having  succeeded  in  making 
fine  and  delicate  wines  from  American  grapes,  which  is  greatly  to  their 
honor  and  credit.  To  this  they  came  by  a  very  careful  and  wise  choosing 
of  vineyard  cultivation  of  grapes. 

"Besides  these  types  they  produce  exquisite  white  wines  of  Rhine, 
Moselle  and  Sauterne  type,  also  Clarets,  Burgundy,  Sweet  Wines  and  Unfer- 
mented  Grape  Juice. 

"I  found  their  Superior  Old  Port  delightful.  It  has  several  great  advan- 
tages over  other  Ports.  It  has  a  brighter  color  and  it  can  stand  aging  better. 
This  wine  compares  favorably  with  some  of  the  very  best  wines  of  the  Douro 
Valley  in  Spain." 

Some  of  our  Eastern  wines  are  improved  by  blending  with  a  little  Cali- 
fornia wines;  not  all,  but  some.  There  are  few  large  wine  cellars  in  the 
East  which  do  not  use  some  California  wines  for  blending,  and  right  here  I 
wish  to  state  that  the  time  is  not  far  off  when  you  gentlemen  will  require 
some  of  our  Eastern  wines  to  blend  for  the  highest  types  of  wines  you  will 
produce. 

It  was  our  privilege  only  a  month  ago,  at  one  of  our  monthly  luncheons, 
to  drink  some  white  and  red  wines  which  Mr.  Morgan  had  bottled  before  the 
fire,  and  I  want  to  state  that  they  would  grace  the  table  of  any  gentleman. 
Make  such  wines  and  then  ask  a  price  to  justify  the  expense  and  you  will 
have  a  great  market. 

In  conclusion  let  me  extend  to  you  the  hand  of  fellowship  and  let  the 
East  and  West  come  closer  together  with  confidence,  not  distrust  or  jealousy, 
but  for  the  uplifting  and  honor  of  our  industry. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  303 

A  NEW  UTILIZATION  OF  A  BY-PRODUCT  OF 
THE   GRAPE. 

By  GUIDO  ROSSATI. 
Enotecnico  Governativo  Italiano  at  New  York,  N.  Y. 


It  is  a  fact,  often  recurring  in  industrial  enterprises  working  on  a  narrow 
margin,  either  because  of  competition  or  of  other  factors,  that  the  manu- 
facturer depends  for  his  profit  more  from  the  by-products  than  from  the 
primary  product  itself  of  his  industry.  The  meat  packers  of  Chicago,  of 
whom  it  is  proverbially  said  that  they  utilize  everything  of  the  hog  except 
the  squeal,  afford,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  thorough 
utilization  of  such  valuable  material  as  they  operate  with. 

The  wine  industry,  with  which  I  am  concerned  for  my  subject,  is 
fortunately  one  of  those  that,  notwithstanding  the  inevitable  great  variability 
of  cost  of  its  staple  product,  depending  chiefly  on  the  outcome  of  the  crop, 
maintains  in  comparison  with  other  agricultural  industries,  fairly  satisfactory 
returns  on  the  basis  of  its  main  product,  viz.,  wine,  provided  vinification  is 
accomplished  by  rational  methods,  so  as  to  insure  a  sound  article,  of  standard 
quality. 

Yet  it  must  be  recognized  that,  where  wine  making  is  carried  on  on  an 
important  scale,  a  rational  utilization  of  the  by-products  of  the  grape  can 
add  considerably  to  the  balance  sheet  of  the  wine  maker.  And  when  it  is 
considered  that,  in  this  case,  with  the  economic  welfare  of  the  wine  maker 
is  concerned  to  a  certain  extent  that  of  other  industries,  such  as  the  tar- 
taric,  for  which  the  grape  is  as  yet  the  only  source  of  supply  of  the  necessary 
prime  material,  while  the  consumption  of  tartaric  products  is  constantly 
developing,  it  is  apparent  how  desirable  it  is  that  of  the  precious  ampelidae 
nothing  should  go  to  waste,  or  to  less  remunerative  forms  of  utilization  than 
modern  ingenuity  can  suggest  or  devise. 

It  is  not  within  the  province  of  my  subject  to  treat  either  of  the  distilla- 
tion of  grape  and  wine  residues,  for  the  production  of  alcohol  or  brandy,  or 
of  the  extraction  of  cream  of  tartar,  or  tartaric  acid,  from  the  pomace  and 
wine  lees,  neither  of  the  manufacture  of  oil  and  tannic  acid  from  the  grape 
seeds,  nor  of  the  preparation  of  feed  cake  for  cattle  from  the  grape  pomace, 
etc.,  which  are  the  usual  forms  of  utilization  of  the  re^iuues  of  vinification. 
Each  of  these  lines  of  industrial  exploitation  would  require  Tiore  space  and 
time  than  is  possible  to  give  within  the  limt  of  a  short  paper,  like  this,  in 
order  to  be  either  adequately  treated,  or  even  only  fairly  touched  upon. 

I  shall,  therefore,  confine  myself  to  a  suggestion  in  connection  with  the 
utilization  of  one  of  the  by-products  of  the  grape,  that  seems  to  be  feasible, 
and  upon  which,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  one  before  has  called  the  attention 
of  the  wine  makers.  I  mean  the  utilization  of  grape  stems  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper. 

The  grape  stem  is  essentially  a  fibrous  material,  containing,  when  green, 
about  20  per  cent  of  fiber,  and  when  dry,  about  40,  while  its  branching  con- 
formation and  wiry  consistency,  sharing  in  this  particular  the  character  of 


304  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

the  vine  tendrils,  with  "vhich  it  bears  a  certain  morphologic  analogy,  would 
appear  to  make  it  a  desirable  material  for  the  purpose  stated.  A  summary 
average  analysis  of  grape  stems  shows  their  composition  to  be  as  follows: 


GREEN   STEMS   (1).  Per  Cent 

Fiber .' (about)  20 

Tannic  acid from  1      to     2 

Resinous  matters (about)  1.5 

Potassium  bitartrate from  0.6  to     1.2 

Free  acids from  0.3  to     0.9 

Mineral  matter from  2      to     2.5 

Moisture from  74.9  to  73.4 

DRY    STEMS    (2).  % 

Fiber  of  cellulose 41.61 

Tannic  acid  10.23 

Pectous  matter 4.94 

Sugars :. 4.00 

Cream  of  tartar , ..  3.37 

Free  tartaric  acid.. 0.23 

Mineral  matter 4.59 

Moisture  ..  27.03 


Total 100.00 

Grape  stems  are  not  utilized  at  present  for  any  particular  purpose,  and 
end  usually  in  the  manure  heap,  save  when  they  are  not  separated  from  the 
pomace  in  wine  making,  in  which  case  the  pomace  after  having  been  pressed, 
goes  to  the  distillery  for  distillation  and  subsequent  treatment  for  extract- 
ing the  raw  cream  of  tartar,  of  which  grape  stems  contain,  if  green,  accord- 
ing to  Ottavi  Marescalchi,  from  0.6  to  1.2  per  cent;  if  dry,  according  to 
Girard  &  Lindet,  about  3.37  per  cent. 

In  rational  wine  making  the  separation  of  the  stems,  the  presence  of 
which  in  the  fermenting  mass  is  undesirable,  chiefly  because  of  their  impart- 
ing greenness  and  unpleasant  acidity  (racemic  and  tannic  acids)  to  the  re- 
sulting wine,  is  a  recognized  necessity  and  an  established  fact,  the  stems 
being  separated  by  means  of  a  stemmer,  usually  attached  to  the  grape 
crusher.  As  a  rule  the  stemming,  crushing,  and,  if  necessary,  the  cutting 
of  the  grapes,  is  accomplished  in  one  operation  by  one  single  machine,  the 
separated  stems  being  conveyed,  through  a  chute,  outside  of  the  crushing 
room,  where  they  gather  in  a  heap,  which  is  removed  from  time  to  time. 

Stems  represent,  as  a  rule,  from  3.5  to  4.5  per  cent  of  the  grapes  vin- 
taged,  while  skins,  seeds  and  other  solid  matter  of  the  grapes,  before  they 
are  fermented,  represent  from  12  to  18  per  cent  of  the  mass;  the  total  solid 
matter  of  the  grapes  averaging  thus  from  15.5  to  22.5  of  the  whole  mass. 

The  dry  pomace  of  unstemmed  grapes  contains  on  an  average  28  per 
cent  of  stems,  40  per  cent  of  skin  and  24  per  cent  of  seeds;  while  the  dry 
pomace  of  stemmed  grapes  is  made  up  of  33  per  cent  of  seeds  and  67  per 
cent  of  skins. 

(1)  Ottavi  Marescalchi,  I  residui  della  vinificazione,  Casale  1901,  p.  6. 

(2)  Girard  &  Lindet  (Ace.  od  Sciences,  1898). 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


305 


Fermented  pomace,  as  it  comes  from  the  wine  press,  contains  usually 
from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  solid  matter,  the  balance  being  represented  by 
wine;  the  same,  not  pressed,  contains  about  35  per  cent  of  solid  matter  and 
about  65  per  cent  of  wine. 

On  the  above  stated  average  bases,  which,  of  course,  vary  more  or  less 
according  to  variety  of  grape,  climate  and  vintage,  it  will  be  easy  to  estimate 
in  each  particular  instance  the  amount  of  stems  obtainable. 

Any  idea  of  the  theoretical  world  supply  of  this  raw  material,  at  present 
practically  wasted,  which,  of  course,  would  represent  a  far  greater  amount 
than  actual  supply,  and,  needless  to  state,  is  of  impossible  realization  for 
obvious  reasons,  and  chiefly  because  stemming  is  not  yet  the  rule  in  wine 
making,  while  in  many  cases  the  freight  problem  would  also  be  an  unsur- 
mountable  difficulty,  is  given  by  the  following  table,  in  which  the  theoretical 
supply  is  estimated,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  on  the  basis  of  the  wine 
production  in  the  various  wine  growing  countries  of  the  world,  as  indicated 
in  year  1909,  representing  an  all  round  average  year. 


Hectolitres 
of  wine 

France  54,445,860 

Italy  41,398,000 

Spain  14,767,911 

Algeria    8,228,719 

Austria  4,500,000 

Portugal   3,100,000 

Russia  2,400,000 

Chili    2,300,000 

Greece  and  Islands 2,200,000 

Hungary   1,925,000 

Germany  1,900,000 

Roumania  1,700,000 

United  States  1,500,000 

Turkey   and   Cyprus 1,500,000 

Bulgaria    1,200,000 

Argentine  Republic  1,010,000 

Other  countries 2,351,455 


Total 147,526,945 


Metric  tons  of 

grapes,  calculated 

on  the  basis 

of  a  wine  yield 

of  65% 

7,350,191 

5,588,730 

1,993,668 

1,110,877 

607,500 

418,500 

324,000 

310,000 

297,000 

259,788 

256,500 

229,500 

202,500 

202,500 

162,000 

136,350 

317,446 

19,916,050 


Tons  of 

stems  yielded, 

calculated  at 

the  average 

of  4% 

284,008 

223,549 

79,746 

44,435 

24,300 

16,740 

12,960 

12,420 

11,880 

10,391 

10,260 

9,180 

8,100 

8,100 

6,480 

5,454 

12,697 

786,640 


The  (practically)  800,000  tons  of  theoretical  supply  of  this  raw  material 
would  mean,  on  the  basis  of  a  20  per  cent  content,  a  supply  of  160,000  tons 
of  cellulose. 

Freight,  which  represents  an  important  item  in  the  suggested  utilization, 
so  much  so  as  to  be  possible  only  where  paper  mills  exist  in  or  within 
convenient  distance  of  the  district  of  supply,  could  be  reduced  in  two  ways: 

First — by  a  partial  drying  of  the  material,  such  as  is  obtainable  through 
natural  agents,  viz:  sun  and  air  drying,  which  reduces  its  bulkiness. 

Second — By  pressing  the  stems  into  bales,  which  could  be  done  either 
by  means  of  the  same  presses  used  for  pressing  the  fermented  grapes,  or  by 
special  hydraulic  presses,  as  used  in  pressing  hay,  esparto  grass,  and  similar 
products. 


306  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

The  treatment  of  such  material  at  the  paper  mill  for  its  conversion  into 
pulp  would  not  differ  practically  from  that  followed  in  the  working  of 
esparto. 

The  stems,  before  being  digested  with  caustic  soda,  could  be  boiled  for 
some  time  in  the  digester,  in  order  to  recover  the  cream  of  tartar,  which  they 
contain,  and  which,  upon  cooling  and  standing  of  the  liquor,  would  crystallize 
out  in  the  usual  way,  as  in  the  case  of  the  working  of  pomace  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  mother-liquor,  if  fuel  is  to  be  had  cheaply,  after  it  has  depos- 
ited the  cream  of  tartar,  could  be  condensed  for  the  preparation  of  tannic 
extract. 

Supposing  the  stems  have  been  packed  in  a  dry  condition,  they  would 
contain,  according  to  Girard  and  Lindet's  analysis,  made  on  dry  stems  of  the 
Aramon  grape,  3.37  per  cent  of  cream  of  tartar  and  10.23  per  cent  of  tannin; 
but  a  more  conservative  estimate  based  on  Ottavi-Marescalchi's  figures, 
would  be  from  about  1  to  about  2  per  cent  of  cream  of  tartar,  and  from  about 
1,5  to  about  3  per  cent  of  tannin. 

Of  course,  only  part  of  these  by-products  could  be  recovered,  but,  I  be- 
lieve, in  sufficient  quantity  to  pay  for  their  extraction. 

The  stems  would  then  have  to  be  boiled  with  caustic  soda  of  convenient 
strength,  under  convenient  pressure,  for  a  sufficient  time,  to  remove  the  non- 
fibrous  constituents,  leaving  the  cellulose  in  a  more  or  less  pure  form, 
according  to  treatment. 

The  washing  of  the  fiber  in  the  hollander  and  the  bleaching  would  next 
be  accomplished  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  esparto  or  straw. 

Where  sulphur  can  be  obtained  cheaply,  as,  for  instance,  in  Sicily,  the 
bi-sulphite  process  could  probably  replace  conveniently  the  soda  process  in 
the  preparation  of  the  pulp,  and  likewise  where  electro-energy  is  within  easy 
reach,  such  as  in  the  north  of  Italy,  the  Kellner  process,  by  which  the  ma- 
terial is  digested  in  a  solution  of  sodium  chloride  at  126°  C.  under  the  action 
of  an  electric  current. 

The  advantages  of  the  suggested  utilization  lie  mainly  in  the  following 
facts : 

First — The  low  cost  of  the  raw  material,  which  is  at  present  practically 
not  utilized. 

Second — The  fact  that  wineries  are  already  provided  with  machinery 
suitable  for  its  packing,  thus  reducing  considerably  the  cost  of  its  removal. 

Third — The  fairly  abundant  supply  of  said  material  in  important  wine 
producing  countries,  such  as  Italy,  France,  etc.,  and  within  a  comparatively 
short  radius. 

Fourth — The  possibility  of  extracting  from  the  stems,  without  departing 
from  the  industrial  process  necessary  for  their  transformation  into  pulp,  the 
valuable  by-products  above  stated,  viz:  cream  of  tartar  and  tannic  acid. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  case  of  a  wine  plant  working,  say,  300  tons  of 
grapes  daily  for  thirty  days.  There  would  be  a  production  of  360  tons  of 
stems,  which,  at  nominal  net  price  of  $2.50  per  ton  (a  dollar  more  than  its 
value  in  manure,  and  almost  more  than  three  times  its  value  as  represented 
by  the  price  paid  for  grapes),  would  add  something  like  $900  to  the  revenue 
of  the  wine  maker.  Freight  expenses  would  have  to  be  added  to  this  cost 
of  origin. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  307 

Estimating  a  yield  of  say  60  tons  of  cellulose,  after  allowing  for  a  certain 
waste,  and  on  the  conservative  assumption  that  the  finished  article  should 
sell  at  the  price  of  the  cheapest  wood  pulp,  to  which  revenue  should  be 
added  the  value  of  the  cream  of  tartar  and  of  the  tannic  acid  extracted, 
there  would,  after  defraying  the  expenses  of  production,  be  left  in  all  prob- 
ability a  profit,  provided  freight  was  not  above  $2  per  ton,  in  the  same 
manner  as  there  is  a  margin  the  working  of  esparto,  a  material  having  an 
original  cost  from  three  to  four  times  greater  than  the  one  I  am  speaking  of, 
but  yielding,  of  course,  about  two  and  one-half  times  as  much  fiber. 

I  have  ventured  the  above  as  a  suggestion,  without  going  into  the  details, 
for  which  I  am  not  prepared.  This  suggestion  appears  to  me,  however, 
worthy  of  being  made  the  subject  of  further  study  and  experiments, 
especially  where  grape  stems  could  be  concentrated  at  one  point  by  cheaper 
water  transportation. 

While  such  utilization,  as  proposed,  would  increase  the  revenue  of  the 
winemaker  and,  by  stimulating  the  elimination  of  the  stems  from  the  fer- 
menting grapes,  would  improve  the  quality  of  the  main  product  of  the  winery, 
viz:  wine;  it  would  also,  in  wine  producing  countries,  assist,  to  a  certain 
extent,  in  solving  the  engrossing  problem  of  the  scarcity  of  material  suitable 
to  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

I  will  conclude  by  leaving  to  the  poet  of  the  future  the  emotions  of 
writing  his  verses  on  such  inspiring  paper  as  one  so  akin,  in  its  origin,  to 
the  wherewithal  he  is  wont  to  wet  his  lyre  and  to  sing  the  success  of  this 
new  industrial  achievement. 


RELATION  OF  THE  MATURITY  OF  THE  GRAPES  TO  THE 
QUANTITY  AND   QUALITY   OF   THE   RAISINS. 

By  FREDERIC  T.  BIOLETTI, 
University  of  California. 


During  a  lecture  to  grape  growers  in  1912  at  Fresno,  the  center  of  the 
world's  raisin  production,  the  speaker  was  asked:  "At  what  degree  of  ripe- 
ness should  raisin  grapes  be  harvested?"  Though  posing  as  an  expert,  the 
speaker  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  ignorance.  The  same  question  addressed 
to  the  audience,  composed  of  many  of  the  largest  and  oldest  raisin  growers 
of  the  region,  met  with  a  similar  response.  Opinions  were  advanced,  but 
not  facts. 

According  to  some,  the  riper  the  grapes  the  higher  the  quality  of  the 
raisins.  According  to  others,  the  degree  of  maturity  made  little  difference, 
providing  it  had  reached  a  certain  minimum.  In  any  case,  it  was  claimed, 
the  harvesting  of  the  crop  before  the  first  rains  and  when  labor  was  avail- 
ble,  were  the  controlling  factors  and  quite  overshadowed  any  slight  differ- 
ence of  price  that  might  be  obtained  by  any  possible  increase  of  quality. 
No  suggestion  was  made  that  the  degree  of  maturity  influenced,  in  any  way, 
the  amount  of  the  crop. 


308 


INTERNATIONAL,  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


TIME  OF  DRYING      MUSCAT,  KEARNEY,  1913 


AUG.ITi 
23, 
30  i 

SEPT.  8 1 
16. 


BAL.,8 
1? 


DRYING  RATIO 

MUSCAT  KEARNEY.  SULTANINA  KEARNEY. 


GRADES  OF  RAISINS        PERCENT      1914 

4  CROWN  3  CROWN  2  CROWN 

AUG.12—  _-^______ 


19 
26 

SEPT.  3 1 
9 

16 
23 


CROPS  AND  PROFITS 


INCREASE    1914 


AUG.12 
19 
26 

SEPT.  3 

9 

16 

23 


SOLID  LINE  PROFIT.HOLLOW  LINE-COST  IN  PER  CENT  OF  CROP. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  309 

The  concensus  of  opinion  seemed  to  be  that  in  a  general  way  the  riper 
the  grapes  the  higher  the  quality  and  the  higher  the  ratio  of  dried  grapes 
to  fresh.  Whether  this  higher  ratio  represented  an  actual  increase  of  dry 
matter  or  final  crop,  or  simply  a  partial  drying  on  the  vine,  was  not 
discussed. 

During  the  following  season,  1913,  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  California 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  to  throw  light  on  these  doubtful  points  and, 
specifically,  to  determine  the  changes  in  drying  ratio,  time  of  drying,  quality 
of  raisins  and  quantity  of  crop  with  advancing  maturity  of  the  grapes. 

The  plan  adopted  was  to  gather  five  trays  (110  pounds)  of  grapes  when 
they  reached  about  the  minimum  degree  of  ripeness  at  which  it  is  ever 
attempted  to  make  raisins,  and  to  dry  them  by  the  usual  methods  adopted  in 
the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  A  similar  amount  was  gathered  thereafter  every 
seven  days  and  dried  in  the  same  way,  as  long  as  the  weather  permitted. 
These  tests  were  carried  out  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Way  at  the  Kearney  Vineyard. 
The  variety  was  the  ordinary  raisin  grape,  Muscat  of  Alexandria. 

During  the  season  of  1914  these  tests  were  repeated  at  Kearney  on  a 
larger  scale  and  similar  tests  at  the  same  place  made  with  Sultanina.  Both 
varieties  were  tested  in  the  same  way  also  at  Davis  by  Mr.  F.  Flossfeder. 

1.  Time  of  Drying.     As  the  season  progresses  the  days  become  cooler 
and  the  nights  longer  and  as  a  consequence  the  time  necessary  for  drying 
increases,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  record. 

Table  I — Muscat,  Kearney,  1913. 

Date  Drying — Time  in  Days  Date 

Bal.°  Gathered  Turned  Stacked  Boxed  Finished 

1 21.00  Aug.    17               6                             13  Aug.    30 

2 23.90  Aug.    23               6             ....             15  Sept.     7 

3 25.50  Aug.    30               9             ....             17  Sept.  16 

4 26.75  Sept.     8               8             16             21  Sept.  29 

5 28.75  Sept.  16             13             23             34  Oct.     22 

The  process  of  drying  required  only  about  two  weeks  early  in  the  season, 
but  nearly  five  for  the  last  picking  in  the  middle  of  September.  The  drying 
of  the  last  two  pickings  took  place  principally  in  the  "stack,"  that  is  after  the 
raisin  trays  had  been  placed  one  on  top  of  another  in  piles  of  about  ten  trays. 
This,  together  with  the  cooler  and  shorter  days,  accounts  for  the  greater  time. 
Slow  drying  is  favorable  to  quality  as  is  also  drying  in  the  shade,  such  as 
occurs  in  the  stack. 

2.  Drying   Ratio.     The  number  of  pounds  of  fresh  grapes  required  to 
make  a  pound  of  raisins  is  called  the  drying  ratio.     Estimates  of  the  value 
of  this  ratio  by  various  growers  vary  from  4.25  to  3.5.    It  depends  on  a  num- 
ber of  factors.    As  the  change  of  grapes  into  raisins  consists  essentially  and 
principally  in  the  evaporation  of  a  large  portion  of  the  water,  the  chief  factor 
is  the  degree  of  maturity  of  the  grapes.    The  riper  the  grapes  the  more  solid 
material  they  will  contain  and  the  less  weight  they  will  lose  in  drying.    It  is 
influenced  also  by  the  variety  of  grape,  the  compactness  of  the  bunches,  the 
percentage  of  stems  and  by  the  amount  of  loss  in  gathering,  turning,  boxing 
and  hauling. 


310  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Four  series  of  tests  were  made  at  Kearney  and  at  Davis  with  Muscat 
and  Sultanina.  The  Muscats  were  gathered  and  dried  at  various  degrees  of 
ripeness  from  18.6°  Bal.  to  28.75°  Bal.,  the  Sultaninas  from  20.5°  Bal.  to 
25.6°  Bal.  The  results  were  fairly  concordant  except  in  the  case  of  the 
Sultaninas  where  some  of  the  raisins  of  the  riper  grapes  were  lost.  The 
concordant  results  were  averaged  and  the  drying  ratio  at  various  degrees  of 
ripeness  calculated,  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  II.     Drying  Ratio — Grapes:     Raisins  (G/R). 
(Calculated  from  experiment  data.) 

Muscat.  Sultanina. 

Bal.°                                   G/R  Bal.°                                   G/R 

18 4.8  

19 4.5  

20 4.3  20 4.6 

21 4.1  21 4.3 

22 3.9  22 ....4.0 

23 3.7  23 3.8 

24 3.5  24 3.6 

25 3.4 

26 3.3  

27 3.2  

28 3.1  

Average....  23  3.8     Average....  22  4.06 

As  very  few  of  the  raisins  were  lost  in  handling,  these  may  be  considered 
as  minimum  drying  ratios  at  the  various  percentages  of  sugar.  Under  ordi- 
nary vineyard  conditions  the  number  indicating  the  ratios  would  be  slightly 
higher,  as  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  some  loss  of  material  during  the  various 
operations.  The  figures  of  the  table  include  the  weight  of  the  stems  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  custom.  The  Muscat  shows  a  slightly  lower  drying  ratio 
than  the  Sultanina,  owing  probably  to  the  presence  of  seeds  in  the  former. 
The  difference  would  amount  to  about  16  pounds  of  raisins  per  ton  of  fresh 
grapes  in  favor  of  the  Muscat. 

As  the  tests  showed  that  first-class  raisins  cannot  be  made  from  the 
Muscats  before  they  reach  25°  Balling,  or  from  the  Sultaninas  below  23° 
Balling,  a  drying  ratio  of  3.4  for  the  former  and  3.8  for  the  latter  should  be 
the  maximum.  Ratios  above  these  figures  indicate  either  insufficient  matur- 
ity of  the  grapes  or  losses  of  raisins  in  handling.  If  the  gathering  of  the 
grapes  is  commenced  when  this  degree  of  ripeness  is  attained  they  will  be 
riper  when  the  gathering  is  finished.  The  average  drying  ratio  for  the  season 
should,  therefore,  be  lower.  An  average  drying  ratio  of  about  3.2  for  Muscat 
and  of  3.6  for  Sultanina  may  be  considered  excellent  and  indicating  both 
full  ripeness  of  the  grapes  and  little  loss  in  handling. 

3.  Quality.  Variations  in  quality  are  much  more  difficult  to  estimate 
than  those  of  quantity.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  consumer  there  is 
no  doubt  that  in  all  the  tests  the  riper  the  grapes  the  higher  the  quality  of 
the  raisins.  This  was  the  unanimous  verdict  of  all  to  whom  samples  were 
submitted.  Samples  were  also  submitted  to  expert  raisin  handlers  and 
buyers.  The  opinions  thus  obtained  were  not  quite  so  unanimous.  All 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  311 

agreed  that  the  Muscat  raisins  made  from  grapes  below  25°  Bal.  were  more 
or  less  inferior.  Some  preferred  those  at  25°  Bal.  and  considered  the 
raisins  made  from  riper  grapes  less  desirable  commercially  owing  to  their 
stickiness  and  deeper  color.  Others  stated  that  there  was  little  difference 
in  value  among  those  made  after  the  grapes  reached  25°  Bal.  In  the  case 
of  the  Sultanina  a  similar  difference  of  opinion  was  found. 

The  quality  includes  a  number  of  factors,  such  as  size,  color,  flavor  and 
texture.  Improvements  in  any  of  these  factors  usually  accompany  increase 
of  size,  if  we  confine  our  comparisons  to  the  same  variety  of  grape,  the 
same  locality  and  the  same  method  of  manufacture. 

If  we  compare  the  various  tests  of  Muscat  raisins  made  at  Kearney  in 
1914,  in  respect  to  the  ratios  of  the  various  "crowns,"  or  sizes  produced, 
and  use  these  ratios  as  measures  of  quality,  we  find  a  very  regular  increase 
of  quality  proportionate  to  the  increase  in  ripeness  of  the  grapes. 


Table    III.     Ratios   of   Grades  ("Crowns")    of  Raisins  (by   Weight). 

Kearney,  1914. 

Exp.                                          Bal.  4  Cr.  3  Cr.  2  Cr.  Seedless  Waste 

1 18.6  7.45  65.95  23.32  1.62  2.10 

2 20.2  7.53  68.82  21.50  1.11  1.04 

3 21.8  8.26  70.19  19.03  1.51  1.03 

4 23.6  12.75  68.70  15.44  2.42             .76 

5 24.0  20.26  64.76  13.00  1.41             .57 

6 23.8  24.27  61.74  12.66  .94             .38 

7....                                           26.5  30.41  56.55  12.28  .72             .15 


Table  IV.     Average  Weight  of  Various  Grades  (in  Grams  per  1000). 

Kearney,  1914. 

"Float- 

Exp.                                                          4  Cr.  3  Cr.  2  Cr.  Seedless       ers" 

1 13.95  10.50  6.35  2.45           1.30 

2 15.45  10.40  5.80  2.45           1.35 

3 15.70  11.75  6.05  2.40           1.75 

4 16.48  12.40  6.15  2.80           1.30 

5 15.48  11.95  5.75  2.20           1.50 

6 16.25  32.55  6.55  2.75  ,,1.60 

7 17.75  13.80  5.90  2.45           1.30 

Improvement  of  quality  with  increasing  ripeness  is  shown  in  Table  III 
by  an  increase  of  over  300  per  cent  in  the  largest  grade  and  a  correspond- 
ing decrease  in  the  smaller,  particularly  the  smallest.  This  increase  is 
both  in  size  and  in  specific  gravity,  as  it  shown  in  Table  IV  by  the  regular 
increase  of  average  weight  of  the  3  cr.  and  4  cr.  grades.  In  the  smaller 
grades  there  is  little  or  no  change  in  specific  gravity. 

4.  Increase  of  Crop.  Thus  as  the  grapes  develop,  they  increase  in  size 
and  in  specific  gravity,  and  the  crop  consequently  increases  in  total  weight. 
As  the  drying  ratio  at  the  same  time  diminishes,  the  increase  in  the  weight 
of  raisins  is  greater  than  in  that  of  fresh  grapes. 

An  estimate  of  the  total  increase  of  weight  of  raisins  was  made  by 
weighing  two  average  samples  of  1,000  raisins  taken  from  each  drying  test. 


312  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Assuming  that  the  total  number  of  grapes  does  not  vary  during  the  ripening, 
the  average  weight  of  1,000  raisins  of  each  set  should  furnish  a  measure  of 
the  increase  of  crop. 


Table  V.     Increase  of  Crop  of  Raisins  with  Increase  of  Ripeness  of  Grapes. 

(Observed.) 

Muscat  —  Kearney,   1913.                             Muscat  —  Kearney,  1914. 

Bal.°     Lbs.  per  Acre      Per  Cent              Bal.°     Lbs.  per  Acre  Per  Cent 

21.00               2,000               100.00                 18.6                 2,950  100.00 

23.90                2,365                118.25                 20.2                  3,050  104.07 

25.50                2,408                120.40                 21.8                  3,032  102.78 

26.75                2,648                132.40                 23.6                  3,191  108.17 

28.75               2,732               136.60                 24.0                 3,414  119.12 

23.8                  3,876  131.40 

26.5                 4,363  147.80 


Average  increase  per  Bal.°  4.7%  Average  increase  per  Bal.°  6.00% 

Sultanina  —  Kearney,  1914.  Muscat  —  Davis,  1914. 

Bal.°     Lbs.  per  Acre      Per  Cent  Bal.°  Lbs.  per  Acre      Per  Cent 

21.0                 3,800               100.00  21.4                 2,000  100.00 

21.8                  4,244                111.68  25.8                  2,046  102.30 

22.4                 4,565                120.13  26.1                  2,074  103.70 

23.0                  4,565                120.13  26.5                  2,174  108.70 

24.0                  4,740                124.74  28.7                 2,244  112.20 
23.6                 4,686                123.32 
25.4                 5,049                132.63 


Average  increase  per  Bal.°  7.4%          Average  increase  per  Bal.°  1.7% 

These  results  are  as  concordant  as  could  be  expected,  especially  with 
the  Muscat  from  Kearney.  The  vines  in  this  case  are  very  uniform  and 
there  is  little  variation  in  the  soil.  The  Sultanina  from  Kearney  show 
slightly  less  regularity,  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
vines  are  grafted  on  different  varieties  of  resistant  stocks. 

The  comparatively  low  increase  in  weight  of  raisins,  compared  to  the 
increase  in  Balling  degree  in  the  case  of  the  Muscat  at  Davis,  can  probably 
be  explained  by  the  gathering  of  second  crop  during  the  later  pickings. 
This  would  decrease  the  average  size  of  the  raisins.  The  Balling  tests  of 
the  grapes  before  picking  were  made  on  only  first  crop  bunches.  These 
tests  are  more  liable  to  error  than  the  other  observations,  as  it  is  very 
difficult  to  choose  a  small  sample  of  grapes  that  will  give  an  exact  measure 
of  the  ripeness  of  the  whole  crop.  For  this  reason,  the  average  increase 
per  Balling  degree  has  been  calculated  only  on  the  samples  at  the  ends  of 
each  series,  as  the  greatest  differences  are  liable  to  the  smallest  percentage 
of  error. 

The  average  increase  of  crop  per  Balling  degree  of  sugar  in  the  grapes, 
therefore,  appears  to  be  about  5.35  per  cent  with  Muscat  and  7.4  per  cent 
with  Sultanina  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  This  represents  an  average  in- 
crease in  crop  per  day  of  1.18  per  cent  for  the  Muscat  and  .58  per  cent  for 
the  Sultanina  during  the  ripening  period. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION 


313 


5.  Profits.  In  estimating  the  profits,  we  may  assume  that  all  the 
samples  would  bring  the  same  price.  This  is  approximately  true  under 
present  market  conditions  for  all,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  raisins 
made  very  early  in  the  season  which  might  be  objected  to  by  the  dealers. 

With  this  assumption,  the  gross  returns  would  increase  in  the  same  ratio 
as  the  crop.  The  net  profits,  however,  would  increase  in  a  greater  ratio.  The 
cost  of  raising  the  grapes  would  be  the  same  and  the  cost  of  making  the 
raisins  larger  in  the  total,  but  somewhat  less  per  ton.  The  estimates  of  the 
following  table  have  been  calculated  on  this  basis.  A  price  of  5  cents  per 
pound  has  been  assumed  for  the  Muscat  raisins  and  6  cents  per  pound  for 
the  Sultanina.  A  crop  of  2,000  pounds  at  20°  Bal.,  which  is  a  low  estimate 
for  a  well  cared  for  vineyard  in  good  soil.  The  cost  of  raising  the  grapes, 
including  all  fixed  and  running  expenses,  such  as  interest,  taxes,  depreciation 
and  cultivation  has  been  estimated  at  $37.50  per  acre.  The  cost  of  making 
the  raisins,  including  all  similar  expenses,  has  been  estimated  at  $12  per  ton 
for  a  crop  of  one  ton  per  acre,  with  a  suitable  decrease  for  larger  crops. 


Table   VI.     Gross   and 

Net   Returns  from   a   Muscat  Vineyard 

(One   Acre). 

(Calculated  from  experiment  data.) 

Bal.° 

Lbs.  per  A. 

Gross  Returns 

Cost 

Net  Profit 

Increases 

18 

1,786 

$  89.30 

$47.90 

$41.40 

0.00% 

19 

1,893 

94.65 

48.70 

45.95 

8.57 

20 

2,000 

100.00 

49.50 

50.50 

21.98 

21 

2,107 

105.35 

50.19 

55.16 

33.24 

22 

2,214 

110.70 

50.88 

59.82 

44.49 

23 

2,321 

116.05 

51.57 

64.48 

55.75 

24 

2,428 

121.40 

52.26 

69.14 

67.00 

25 

2,535 

126.75 

52.95 

73.80 

78.26 

26 

2,642 

132.10 

53.64 

78.46 

89.52 

27 

2,749 

137.45 

54.33 

83.12 

100.77 

28 

2,856 

142.80 

55.02 

87.78 

112.03 

These  tests  indicate  that  between  the  lowest  degree  of  ripeness  at  which 
grapes  are  ever  picked  for  raisin  making,  18°  Bal.,  and  the  highest  at  which 
it  is  usually  possible,  28°  Bal.,  there  is  an  actual  increase  of  weight  of  crop  of 
about  60  per  cent,  representing  an  increase  of  profit,  when  the  raisins  will 
sell  at  5  cents,  from  $41.40  per  acre  to  $87.78  or  112  per  cent.  In  the  absence 
of  extended  observations  of  the  degree  of  ripeness  at  which  growers  usually 
pick  their  grapes,  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  accurately  how  much  of  this 
profit  is  lost  on  the  average.  A  few  observations  made  in  vineyards  selected 
at  hazard  during  the  vintage  of  1913,  however,  indicate  that  it  is  large.  The 
following  table  indicates  the  probable  loss  in  the  vineyards  selected.  A  crop 
of  2,000  pounds  of  raisins  is  assumed  in  each  case  for  a  Balling  degree  of  20 
and  the  crop  and  net  profit  estimated  for  the  Balling  degree  at  picking.  This 
is  compared  with  the  crop  which  would  have  been  obtained  at  26°  Bal., 
calculated  on  the  increase  found  in  the  experiments. 


314  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Table   VII.     Loss   of  Crop   by  too    Early    Picking. 
(Calculated  for  one  acre.) 


Vineyard 
1 

At 

Actual  Picking  — 
Crop               Profit 
2,139               $56.56 
2,182                  58.42 
2,300                 63.55 
2,375                 66.81 
2,321                  64.48 
2,642                 78.46 

Loss  from 
Early  Picking 
Loss 
$21.90 
20.40 
14.91 
11.65 
13.98 
.    0.00 

Bal.° 

21.3 

2 

21.7 

3 

22.8 

4                   

23.5 

5  

23.0 

6.... 

26.0 

Average  probable  loss  per  acre $13.81 

Out  of  six  vineyards  only  one  was  found  where  the  grapes  were  being 
picked  at  a  sufficiently  advanced  stage  of  ripeness.  The  loss  of  profit  in  the 
others  may  be  fairly  estimated  to  be  from  $12  to  $22  per  acre,  or  an  average 
of  over  $16,  not  allowing  anything  for  the  inferior  quality  of  the  product. 
Some  of  this  loss  is  probably  unavoidable,  owing  to  the  necessity  of  harvest- 
ing the  crop  when  labor  for  picking  is  available.  Much  of  it  is  due,  however, 
to  fear  of  rain,  which  leads  to  early  picking.  If  the  extent  of  loss  caused 
by  premature  harvesting  were  realized,  however,  it  would  be  seen  in  most 
cases  that  it  pays  to  run  the  risk  of  the  expense  of  extra  labor  in  stacking  to 
protect  the  drying  grapes. 

The  meteoriological  records  from  1882  to  1900  show  an  average  monthly 
rainfall  at  Fresno  in  September  of  .26  inches  and  for  October  of  .65.  During 
this  period  the  rainfall  for  September  exceeded  one  inch  only  twice  in  the 
eighteen  years  and  in  October  six  times.  Only  once  was  the  rainfall  in 
October  sufficiently  heavy  to  make  it  likely  that  the  raisins  might  not  have 
been  saved  by  stacking.  The  risk  of  expense  in  stacking  would,  therefore, 
seem  to.be  well  insured  against  by  the  increased  profit  of  allowing  the  grapes 
to  remain  on  the  vines  two  or  three  weeks  later  than  is  customary. 


The  presentation  of  papers  closed  with  that  of  Mr.  Hiram  Dewey.  In  it 
he  spoke  of  the  port  wine  coming  from  a  section  of  Spain.  Mr.  Manuel 
Roldan,  Commissioner  General  to  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposi- 
tion from  Portugal,  was  in  the  audience  and  good-naturedly  took  exception 
to  the  identification  of  port  wine  with  Spain.  He  spoke  of  his  country, 
Portugal,  in  glowing  terms  and  gave  the  Congress  to  understand  that  his 
native  land  was  the  home  of  port  wine,  and  that  the  wine  indeed  had  derived 
its  name  from  the  famous  city  of  Oporto. 

President  Alwood  asked  for  a  word  of  greeting  for  the  Congress  from 
the  representatives  of  foreign  countries  who  were  present. 

Mr.  I.  Nagasawa,  manager  of  the  Fountain  Grove  Vineyard  at  Santa 
Rosa,  California,  who  responded  on  behalf  of  Japan,  spoke  as  follows: 

"Mr.  President  and  Distinguished  Delegates  to  the  International  Con- 
gress of  Viticulture.  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  have  this  opportunity 
of  welcoming  you  all  to  this  wonderful  exposition  of  great  accomplishment 
and  high  ideals,  and  to  this  State  of  golden  opportunities,  where  I  have  been 
engaged  in  the  viticultural  industry  for  the  last  forty  years,  where  I  have 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  315 

given  the  vitality  of  my  whole  life  to  the  industry  in  which  we  are  all  inter- 
ested. And  as  one  born  in  Japan,  I  bring  to  you  the  best  of  greetings  from 
the  Island  Empire  across  the  Pacific.  I  bring  greetings  from  the  old  country, 
where  "sake"  distilled  from  rice  has  constituted  the  national  beverage  for 
many,  many  centuries.  Greetings  to  you  from  that  country  new  in  wine 
industry — new  because  they  only  learned  the  art  of  making  wine  about  a 
decade  ago,  though  the  neighborhood  of  Kofu,  in  Yamanashi  Prefecture,  has 
for  some  time  been  famed  for  the  production  of  grapes  for  the  table.  Viti- 
culture is  yet  in  its  infancy  in  Japan.  Aside  from  the  place  just  mentioned 
there  are  only  two  vineyards  in  all  Japan  worthy  of  mention:  one  at 
Iwahara,  in  the  province  of  Echigo,  cultivated  by  Kawakami  Zembei,  an 
enthusiast,  who  has  been  experimenting  with  about  300  different  grapes  he 
imported  from  France,  and  the  other  at  Ushiku,  in  Chiba  Prefecture,  owned 
by  Kamiya  Dembei.  While  the  consumption  of  wine  is  steadily  increasing 
in  Japan,  the  wine  industry  has  not  made  much  headway  on  account  of 
climatic  disadvantages  and  for  other  reasons.  Yet  efforts  are  being  made 
to  overcome  difficulties  and  surmount  obstacles,  as  it  has  been  the  case 
with  many  things  in  which  she  has  succeeded.  Thus  I  bring  greetings  and 
good  will  to  you  all  from  the  nation  which  has  found  supreme  p'easure  in 
overcoming  difficulties  with  its  ideals  ever  fixed  upon  the  ethereal  plane  of 
success." 

Mr.  Manuel  Roldan  extended  greetings  in  the  name  of  the  Government 
of  Portugal. 


316  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 


AFTERNOON  SESSION,  JULY  13,  1915. 

Meeting  called  to  order  by  the  president,  who  introduced  Mr.  Charles  A. 
Vogelsang,  Exposition  Commissioner. 

Mr.  Vogelsang:  "I  want  to  say  on  behalf  of  President  Moore  and  the 
directors  of  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition  that  you  are  most 
welcome  here.  Congresses  representing  every  line  of  .human  endeavor  have 
been  gathered  here  and  are  still  to  come.  We  feel  that  international  con- 
gresses representing  every  line  of  human  activity  will  not  be  frequent  in 
the  future.  They  may  take  some  particular  line,  but  here  you  have  the 
honor  and  pleasure  of  gathering  here  at  this  time  when  we  are  celebrating 
in  the  United  States  an  International  Exposition  commemorating  an  event 
that  is  without  parallel  so  far  as  its  physical  and  engineering  achievement  is 
concerned.  You  come  here  at  a  time  when  a  realization  of  the  dreams  of 
Cabrillo  and  Balboa  has  come  true.  It  was  left  to  the  American  people  to 
accomplish  that  end. 

"This  Viticultural  Congress  is  one  of  the  most  successful  that  has  been 
held  at  the  Exposition.  You  represent  a  very  important  industry  that  had 
its  beginning  almost  in  the  very  dawn  of  civilization.  Personally,  I  hope  to  see 
a  continuance  of  it  always. 

"This  Exposition  desires  to  recognize  the  industry  that  you  represent, 
that  has  a  history  dating  so  far  back  and  this  history  contributing  to  the 
harmony,  good  feeling  and  friendliness  of  the  human  race  should  be  properly 
recognized.  We  have  had  all  kinds  of  congresses,  educational,  commercial, 
etc.,  and  it  seems  to  me  that  yours  is  just  as  important. 

"On  behalf  of  President  Moore  and  the  Exposition,  and  in  commemora- 
tion of  this  day  and  this  hour,  because  it  is  a  momentous  period  in  the 
world's  history,  to  you  who  are  assembled  here  in  harmony  and  peace  where 
all  is  music,  flowers  and  architectural  achievement,  we  welcome  you.  We 
want  to  show  our  respect  for  your  organization  and  industry  by  presenting 
this  little  memento.  It  is  not  of  diamonds  or  of  gold,  but  of  enduring  quality 
— of  bronze — and  in  commemoration  of  the  Panama-Pacific  International 
Exposition  at  San  Francisco. 

"I  trust  you  will  take  this  medal,  keep  it  and  preserve  it  in  memory  of 
this  day  and  hour." 

President  Alwood:  "On  behalf  of  the  International  Commission  of 
Viticulture,  and  on  behalf  of  this  Congress  and  all  others  here  assembled, 
I  receive  this  commemorative  medal  with  great  pleasure  and  we  shall 
treasure  it  carefully  and  show  it  with  pride  to  our  brethren  who  for  very 
serious  reasons  cannot  be  with  us  here  to  receive  it  for  themselves.  It  is 
a  great  pleasure  for  me  to  say  that  in  my  long  experience  as  a  member  of 
the  International  Viticultural  Commission  never  has  such  an  event  occurred; 
never  has  anybody,  or  State,  or  Government  presented  us  with  an  emblem 
commemorative  of  such  an  occasion.  We  have  been  received  frequently  by 
royalty  and  given  other  honors,  but  as  for  enduring  remembrances,  these  we 
have  never  before  received.  This  testimonial  in  bronze  will  endure  during 
our  live?,  and  the  lives  of  our  children  also. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  317 

"It  is  also  a  great  pleasure,  Mr.  Commissioner,  for  me  to  say  that  among 
all  the  surroundings  where  we  have  met  in  other  countries  it  has  never  been 
our  pleasure  to  meet  in  such  surroundings  as  we  have  here.  I  have  been 
present  at  nearly  all  the  expositions  for  the  past  thirty  years,  and  I  wish 
to  testify  that  you  have  created  here  a  Wonderland,  both  in  building  and  in 
landscape  gardening.  It  is  unsurpassed,  and  I  do  not  believe  that  there  will 
ever  again  be  an  exposition  that  can  approach  this  wonderful  Exposition. 
Therefore,  amid  this  wonderful  scene  that  shows  the  dreams  of  men  come 
true,  we  accept  with  great  pleasure  the  testimonial  you  have  handed  us." 


The  President  called  for  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Resolutions. 

Mr.  C.  E.  Bundschu,  of  San  Francisco,  chairman,  presented  the  resolu- 
tions in  the  following  order. 

Whereas,  This  International  Congress  of  Viticulture,  assembled  in  San 
Francisco,  July  12th  and  13th,  1915,  learns  with  deep  regret  and  sorrow  of 
the  untimely  decease  of  Mr.  Henry  Lachman,  of  Mission  San  Jose,  California, 
known  and  revered  throughout  the  viticultural  world  as  one  of  the  foremost 
exponents  of  viticulture  and  its  many  branches;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Internaional  Congress  of  Viticulture 
express  to  the  family  of  our  departed  and  loved  friend  the  great  regret  we 
feel  at  his  taking  away,  and  the  sympathy  we  wish  to  extend  to  them  and 
to  the  many  friends  who  are  with  them  in  their  bereavement. 

Moved  by  Mr.  George  E.  Lawrence,  of  Lodi,  Cal.,  that  the  resolution  be 
adopted.  Motion  seconded  by  Mr.  Sophus  Federspeil.  Carried  by  a  stand- 
ing vote. 

Mr.  Lachman's  death  occurred  on  July  10,  on  the  eve  of  the  assembling 
of  the  Congress. 

Resolution  No.  2. 

Whereas,  Since  the  American  Commission  of  the  International  Viticul- 
tural Congress  was  organized,  it  has  lost  by  death  Mr.  T.  V.  Munson,  of 
Denison,  Texas;  Dr.  Ludwig  Basserman- Jordan,  of  Neudtadt-Rhein  Pflaz, 
Germany;  Dr.  Clemente  Grimaldi,  of  Modica,  Sicily;  M.  Battanchon,  Inspector 
General  of  Agriculture  of  France,  and  other  of  its  distinguished  and  honored 
colleagues; 

Resolved,  By  the  members  of  the  Congress  assembled  in  San  Francisco, 
California,  July  12th  and  13th,  1915,  that  they  hereby  record  their  sincere 
regret  over  this  loss  to  their  families  and  their  countries,  and  also  the  loss 
to  the  viticultural  industry  of  the  world. 

Moved  by  Mr.  George  E.  Lawrence,  of  Lodi,  Cal.,  that  the  resolution 
be  adopted.  Seconded  by  Mr.  Sheridan  Peterson,  of  Santa  Rosa,  Cal. 

Adopted  by  a  rising  vote. 

Resolution  No.  3. 

Whereas,  On  account  of  the  great  conflict  now  going  on  in  Europe,  many 
of  our  foreign  colleagues  are  unable  to  attend  this  Congress  as  they  had 
planned  and  expected  to  do;  therefore,  be  it 


318  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Rosolved,  That  we  deeply  regret  the  enforced  absence  of  our  European 
associates,  and  we  venture  to  express  the  hope  that  out  of  their  present 
trouble  will  come  lasting  peace  and  unity. 

Moved  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan,  of  Sacramento,  Cal.,  that  the  resolution 
be  adopted.  Seconded  by  Mr.  Hiram  Dewey,  of  New  York. 

Motion  carried. 


Resolution  No.  4. 

Whereas,  The  International  Congress  of  Viticulture,  in  convention  assem- 
bled in  San  Francisco,  California,  this  13th  day  of  July,  1915,  has  had  its 
official  attention  called  to  a  condition  existing  in  the  United  States  inimical 
to  the  industrial  welfare  of  grape  growers  and  wine  makers  throughout  the 
United  States,  resulting  from  the  infliction  by  the  Federal  Government  of 
an  impossible  tax  on  brandy  used  in  the  fortification  of  sweet  wines;  and 

Whereas,  After  carefully  listening  to  a  statement  of  these  conditions 
presented  in  paper  No,  1  at  this  convention  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan,  Secretary 
of  the  California  State  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners,  followed  by  a 
thorough  discussion  of  the  subject  by  delegates  attending  the  Congress,  we 
believe  that  a  great  hardship  has  been  placed  on  the  viticultural  interests 
of  the  United  States,  which,  if  continued,  will  result  in  the  destruction  of  the 
sweet  wine  industry  and  great  commercial  depression  in  the  dry  wine,  table 
grape  and  raisin  producing  sections  of  the  entire  country  and  of  California 
particularly;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  That  it  is  the  sentiment  of  this  International  Congress  of  Viti- 
culture that  immediate  steps  be  taken  by  all  honorable  and  legitimate 
means  to  right  the  great  wrong  that  has  been  done  that  we  commend  to 
fullest  extent  the  effort  that  is  being  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  State 
Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners  of  California  by  way  of  prevailing  on 
the  Federal  Government  of  the  United  States  to  repeal  or  amend  the  exist- 
ing Emergency  War  Revenue  Act  of  October  22,  1914;  and  that  we  pledge 
our  earnest  support  and  influence  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  great  work 
which  is  aimed  at  saving  the  vineyard  properties  of  this  country. 

Moved  by  Mr.  Sheridan  Peterson,  of  Santa  Rosa,  Cal.,  that  the  resolution 
be  adopted  as  read.  Seconded  by  Mr.  Hiram  Dewey,  of  New  York. 

Resolution  adopted  by  a  unanimous  vote. 


Resolution   No.  5. 

Whereas,  It  has  been  the  long  established  policy  both  of  the  State  and 
Federal  governments  to  extend  every  encouragement  and  help  to  the  growers 
of  grapes  and  makers  of  wine;  and 

Whereas,  This  policy  has  resulted  in  the  development  of  viticulture  in 
many  States  of  the  Union,  thus  adding  greatly  to  the  Nation's  wealth,  re- 
sources, employment  and  revenue;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  By  the  International  Congress  of  Viticulture  in  meeting  assem- 
bled that  we  appeal  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  to  urge  upon  their 
representatives  in  the  State  Legislatures  and  in  Congress  to  give  increased 
support  to  the  vineyard  industry  and  technical  investigations  pertaining 
thereto. 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  319 

Moved  by  Mr.  Lee  J.  Vance,  of  New  York,  that  the  resolution  be  adopted. 
Seconded  by  Mr.  Lee  Korbel,  of  Guerneville,  Cal. 
Resolution  adopted. 

Resolution  No.  6. 

Whereas,  Several  States  have  recently  passed  prohibitory  laws  that 
make  no  distinction  between  light  wines  and  the  stronger  liquors;  and 

Whereas,  This  legislation  is  based  on  a  lack  of  knowledge  by  the  voters 
and  the  legislators  as  to  the  true  merits  of  wine  as  a  food,  a  tonic  and  a 
beverage;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  By  the  International  Congress  of  Viticulture  in  meeting  assem- 
bled in  Recital  Hall,  in  Festival  Hall,  at  the  Panama-Pacific  International 
Exposition,  that  we  strongly  recommend  a  campaign  of  education  that  shall 
teach  the  people  of  the  United  States  the  use  of  wine  at  the  table  with  meals, 
the  same  as  has  been  done  for  centuries  by  millions  of  people  in  Europe. 

Moved  by  Mr.  William  B.  Alwood,  of  Charlottesville,  Va.,  that  the  resolu- 
tion be  adopted  as  read.  Seconded  by  Mr.  Sheridan  Peterson,  of  Santa  Rosa, 
Cal.  Motion  carried. 

Resolution  No.  7. 

Whereas,  A  campaign  of  destruction  against  the  growers  of  grapes  and 
makers  of  wine  is  being  waged  by  organizations  led  by  professional  agita- 
tors; and 

Whereas,  The  effect  of  such  agitation  has  resulted  in  the  depreciation 
of  millions  of  dollars  of  taxable  property  in  the  United  States  and  has 
thrown  out  of  employment  thousands  of  men  engaged  in  an  agricultural 
pursuit;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  By  the  International  Congress  of  Viticulture  in  meeting  assem- 
bled in  Recital  Hall,  at  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition,  that 
we  denounce  this  so-called  crusade,  because  it  is  practically  a  confiscation 
of  property  without  just  compensation. 

Moved  by  Mr.  George  E.  Lawrence,  of  Lodi,  Cal.,  that  the  resolution  be 
adopted.  Seconded  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Bettoli,  of  San  Francisco. 

Resolution  adopted. 

Resolution    No.    8 

Whereas,  The  members  of  the  International  Congress  of  Viticulture 
from  the  State  of  California  extended  such  a  splendid  welcome  and  have 
shown  such  whole-souled  hospitality;  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved,  That  the  visiting  delegates  to  the  Congress  hereby  express 
their  deep  appreciation  and  their  hearty  thanks  for  all  the  many  courtesies 
and  entertainments  offered  by  the  California  members,  and  they  assure 
them  that  they  will  carry  away  the  most  delightful  recollections  of  their 
visit  and  association  with  their  California  brethren. 

Resolution  introduced  by  Mr.  Hiram  Dewey,  of  New  York: 

Resolution  adopted. 

Mr.  Federspiel.  "I  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  the  Eastern  delegation  at 
Fresno,  and  on  behalf  of  the  California  members  I  want  to  say  a  few  words. 

"It  was  our  intention  to  show  them  what  California  can  produce.  Los 
Angeles  and  the  southern  part  of  the  State  had  already  shown  them  the 


320  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

beautiful  vineyards  and  orange  groves  of  Riverside  and  San  Bernardino 
counties.  I  then  told  them  that  while  they  had  seen  the  southern  part  of 
California,  that  we  would  undertake  to  show  them  the  northern  part,  and  I 
felt  assured  that  they  would  be  as  pleased  with  the  northern  part  of  the  State 
as  they  had  been  with  the  other  districts.  It  has  certainly  been  a  pleasure 
to  us  Californians  to  welcome  our  Eastern  guests,  and  I  hope  that  they 
will  carry  away  with  them  fondest  recollections  of  the  friends  that  they 
have  made  here,  and  that  they  will  all  have  an  opportunity  of  coming  back 
to  us  some  time  in  the  future." 


UNFINISHED   BUSINESS. 

Mr.  Sheehan:  "For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  present  here  today  and 
did  not  attend  the  preliminary  meeting  of  the  officers  of  the  Congress  held 
last  Sunday  morning,  I  want  to  state  that  one  matter  of  very  vital  impor- 
tance was  taken  up  at  that  meeting,  and  that  was  the  publication  of  the 
proceedings  of  this  Congress,  including  all  of  the  papers  submitted  and  read 
whether  in  full  or  by  abstract  or  by  title. 

"At  this  meeting  President  Alwood,  who  has  kept  in  touch  with  the 
finances  of  the  Congress  through  the  Treasurer,  stated  that  there  was  not 
enough  money  in  the  treasury  to  pay  for  publishing  a  report,  and  that  some 
means  would  have  to  be  devised  to  raise  this  money. 

"I  think  all  of  you  will  agree  that  every  paper  submitted  at  this  Con- 
gress should  appear  later  on  in  printed  form  in  connection  with  a  general 
report  of  the  proceedings.  I  do  hot  know  of  anything,  for  instance,  that 
would  be  more  useful  in  libraries,  more  up  to  date  and  more  timely  than  a 
report  of  these  proceedings,  including  the  very  excellent  papers  that  have 
been  delivered  here.  There  is  scarcely  a  question  that  might  be  asked  in 
relation  to  viticulture  that  could  not  be  answered  in  one  or  more  of  the 
papers  that  have  been  submitted  here. 

"In  California,  a  number  of  the  wine  makers  imagine  they  are  rich.  At 
any  rate,  the  State  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners  believes  that  it  is 
so  important  a  topic  at  this  time,  and  that  the  publication  of  the  report 
should  be  assured  without  a  doubt,  that  I  have  been  asked  to  state  to  you 
that  the  furnishing  of  money  necessary  to  affect  the  publication  of  this  report 
will  be  guaranteed  to  the  extent  of  $200  by  the  State  Board  of  Viticultural 
Commissioners  of  California." 

President  Alwood:  "Mr.  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Viticultural 
Commissioners  of  California,  I  think  the  business  of  the  Congress  is  finished 
and  this  order  has  been  disposed  of  by  the  very  generous  action  of  your 
Board.  I  am  relieved  of  the  matter  of  begging,  and  we  sincerely  thank  you." 

President  Alwood:  "Dr.  Cleonthes  Vassardakis,  Consul  General  for 
Greece  and  Commissioner  to  the  Exposition,  is  the  delegate  from  Greece  to 
this  convention.  I  have  asked  him  at  this  time  to  say  a  word  of  greeting 
to  us  before  we  adjourn.  I  take  great  pleasure  in  introducing  Mr.  Vassar- 
dakis." 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ox  PUBLICATION  321 

Mr.  Vassardakis:  "It  would  have  been  unjustifiable  had  Greece  not  taken 
part  in  this  International  Congress  of  Viticulture  to  extend  to  you  greetings 
and  welcome.  Our  country  was  the  first  to  make  wine  from  the  grape  and 
the  ancient  Greeks  for  several  centuries  gave  preference  to  wine  made  from 
dried  to  that  made  from  fresh  grapes.  Theophrastus  says  that  the  islanders 
of  Chio  were  the  first  to  plant  the  vine  and  to  make  wine  from  the  grape; 
an  art  which  was  imparted  to  them  by  (Enopceos,  the  son  of  Bacchus,  and 
which  they  afterward  taught  to  ether  mortals. 

Ai. other  legend  has  it  that  Bacchus  taught  the  art  to  Icarus  as  a  reward 
for  his  hospitality  to  the  vine-garlanded  god. 

"I  haven't  time  to  tell  you  of  the  methods  we  employ  in  the  making  of 
wine  and  of  the  enemies  that  attack  the  vine.  As  you  are  probably  aware, 
in  my  country  only,  and  in  a  few  districts  of  Greece,  can  the  wholesome  and 
delicious  currant  be  grown,  and  that  all  attempts  to  transplant  the  currant- 
vine  in  other  lands  of  nearly  similar  climatic  conditions,  such  as  Asia  Minor, 
Sicily,  California,  and  others,  have  failed.  In  Greece  itself  it  thrives  only  on 
a  narrow  strip  of  laud,  near  the  southern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  and 
on  four  of  the  Ionian  Islands. 

"Pliny,  writing  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  mentions  the  tiny 
Greek  grape,  of  fine  quality  and  of  thin  skin.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Greeks 
of  the  present  day  will  hear  of  no  other  land  as  the  mother  of  the  currant- 
vine  than  the  classic  plains  of  Corinth,  from  which  the  product  derives  its 
Greek  name,  meaning  'Corinthian  Raisins,'  of  which  the  English  word  'cur- 
rants' is,  no  doubt,  a  slight  corruption. 

"In  the  name  of  my  country  I  invite  you  cordially  to  hold  your  next 
meeting  in  Athens,  in  1921.  We  will  extend  to  you  one  of  the  most  cordial 
of  welcomes,  and  I  hope  this  invitation  will  be  accepted. 

"I  also  invite  you  to  be  present  tomorrow  afternoon  at  the  opening 
ceremonies  of  the  Grecian  Pavilion,  where  there  will  be  a  production  by 
La  Loie  Fuller— a  Grecian  garden  fete — around  Phidias'  statute  of  Pallas 
Athene,  and  concluding  with  a  performance  of  the  Worship  of  Pan." 

President  Alwood:  "Before  adjournment,  I  shall  take  time  to  say  a  few 
words. 

"Possibly  it  may  come  in  bad  grace  from  me  to  say  that  the  Congress, 
notwithstanding  the  unfortunate  world  disturbances  that  have  hindered  its 
proper  organization,  has  proven  a  success.  I  wish  someone  else  would  say 
this,  but  as  no  one  else  seems  inclined  to  do  so,  I  must  say  it  myself.  It 
has  not  been  what  it  might  have  been  had  we  had  with  us  our  able  colleagues 
from  across  the  water,  but  we  have  shown  that  Americans  can  hold  a  viticul- 
tural  congress. 

"We  have  had  with  us  our  brother  from  Portugal,  our  brother  from 
Greece,  and  our  brother  from  Japan  and  are  proud  and  glad,  and  if  our 
colleagues  from  other  foreign  countries  couM  have  been  with  us,  we  would 
have  had  a  most  successful  congress  indeed. 


322  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

"As  it  is,  we  are  entitled  to  congratulate  ourselves  upon  the  matter  that 
has  been  presented  here,  and  in  saying  this  I  wish  to  mention  especially  the 
names  of  certain  men  who  have  performed  a  very  useful  part  in  this  work. 

"Of  the  California  people,  your  able  chairman,  Mr.  C.  J.  Wetmore,  Mr. 
S.  Federspiel,  Mr.  Stoll  and  Mr.  Sheehan,  and  I  am  going  to  add  Professor 
Bioletti,  who  insists  that  he  is  not  one  of  the  officers,  but  who  has  been  a 
most  potent  factor  in  handling  our  program. 

"Of  the  Eastern  men,  I  may  mention  first  of  all  the  man  whom  all  of 
you  know,  Mr.  William  Culman,  who  has  been  our  very  efficient  treasurer 
and  who  has  worked  hard  and  loyally  to  make  this  Congress  a  success;  Mr. 
H.  S.  Dewey,  of  New  York,  who  has  been  a  four-horse  team  in  the  work  of 
this  Congress;  Messrs,  Hildreth  and  Emerson,  who  could  not  attend;  Mr.  Lee 
J.  Vance,  who  is  always  on  time  everywhere;  Professor  Hedrick,  who  largely 
arranged  the  program.  He  expected  to  be  with  us,  but  the  opportunity  to 
secure  a  long  needed  vacation  occurred  and  he  very  properly  accepted  it.  To 
these  gentlemen,  the  moving  spirits  behind  the  scenes,  belongs  all  the  credit 
for  making  this  Congress  a  success. 

"I  trust  you  will  try  to  attend  other  Congresses  in  other  countries  where 
they  may  be  held  in  the  future.  I  am  satisfied  that  if  you  would  take  part  in 
these  International  Congresses  it  would  help  immensely  to  broaden  your 
ideals  of  viticulture  and  give  you  new  conceptions  of  the  splendid  work  and 
the  splendid  position  viticulture  holds  in  the  industries  of  the  world.  Gentle- 
men, I  thank  you  sincerely  for  the  courtesy  you  have  given  me." 

Mr.  E.  M.  Sheehan:  "I  move  you  that  a  special  vote  of  thanks  be  given 
President  Alwood  for  the  able  manner  in  which  he  has  conducted  the  Con- 
gress at  its  deliberations  here." 

Motion  carried  by  a  standing  vote. 

President  Alwood:  "I  thank  you  sincerely,  and  no  other  words  are  neces- 
sary. The  Congress  is  adjourned." 


REPORT  <>F  COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLICATION  323 


ENTERTAINMENT  OF  DELEGATES 

TO  INTERNATIONAL  CONOKKSS  OF  VITKTLTCH  K. 


Elaborate  preparations  were  made  for  the  entertainment  of  the  Eastern 
and  foreign  delegates  who  visted  California  to  attend  the  International  Con- 
gress of  Viticulture,  held  in  San  Francisco,  on  July  12th  and  13th. 

In  addition  to  seeing  the  Expositions  at  San  Diego  and  San  Francisco, 
they  had  an  excellent  opportunity  to  inspect  important  vineyards  and  win- 
eries in  Riverside,  San  Bernardino,  Fresno,  Contra  Costa  and  Sonoma 
counties. 

On  their  arrival  at  Los  Angeles  on  July  7th.  the  delegates  were  given 
their  first  taste  of  California  hospitality  at  the  banquet  in  the  Hotel  Alex- 
andria, where  many  important  grape  growers,  wine  makers  and  public 
officials  welcomed  them  to  California. 

On  Thursday,  July  8th,  the  delegates  inspected  the  beauties  of  the 
Panama-California  Exposition  at  San  Diego,  and  bright  and  early  the  next 
morning  they  were  back  again  in  Los  Angeles.  At  the  depot  they  were  met 
by  automobiles  and  whisked  out  to  the  Chas.  Stern  &  Sons'  winery,  at  Wine- 
ville,  in  Riverside  County,  and  then  taken  to  the  Italian  Vineyard  Company's 
immense  plant  at  Guasti,  in  San  Bernardino  County.  There  a  novel  luncheon 
was  served  in  the  huge  storage  cellars. 

On  Friday,  July  9th,  the  delegates  departed  for  Fresno,  where  they  were 
shown  not  only  the  important  sweet  wine  plants,  but  also  the  raisin  grape 
vineyards  and  the  big  packing  houses.  In  the  evening  a  banquet  was  ten- 
dered them  in  the  Hotel  Fresno. 

On  Sunday  morning,  July  llth,  the  delegates  reached  San  Francisco  and 
were  welcomed  by  a  committee  of  Northern  California  wine  men.  At  10 
o'clock  the  officers  and  chairmen  of  the  various  committees  of  the  Interna- 
tional Viticultural  Congress  met  with  Professor  William  B.  Alwood,  at  the 
Hotel  Bellevue,  for  a  general  conference,  and  after  all  details  had  been  ar- 
ranged the  guests  were  taken  in  automobiles  on  a  sightseeing  trip  around 
San  Francisco. 

On  Tuesday  evening,  July  13th,  about  300  delegates  and  their  wives 
attended  a  notable  banquet,  given  at  Tait's  Pavo  Real.  A  number  of  distin- 
guished city,  State  and  foreign  guests  of  honor  were  present  and  some  ex- 
cellent speeches  were  enjoyed.  Only  Californian  wines  were  served.  All 
sorts  of  novelties  were  planned  for  the  banquet,  and  at  10  o'clock  the  floor 
was  cleared  and  dancing  was  in  order. 

On  Wednesday  morning,  July  14th,  the  visitors  were  taken  on  a  trip 
around  San  Francisco  Bay  to  Winehaven,  where  they  inspected  the  great 
plant  of  the  California  Wine  Association.  At  1  o'clock  they  were  landed  at  the 


324  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  VITICULTURE 

Exposition  grounds,  met  by  Fadgl  cars  and  taken  to  Old  Faithful  Inn  for 
luncheon.  About  200  guests  were  present.  Impromptu  speeches  were  given 
by  leading  wine  men  and  Mrs.  Abigail  Scott  Duniway,  the  most  distinguished 
woman  citizen  of  Oregon.  A  commemorative  bronze  medal  was  presented 
to  the  California  Viticultural  Exhibit  Association  by  Charles  E.  Vogelsang, 
representing  the  Exposition. 

Following  the  luncheon  the  delegates  were  taken  to  the  Court  of  Ceres 
to  witness  an  open  air  "Wine  Day"  program. 

Later  they  visited  the  "Grape  Temple"  of  the  California  Viticultural 
Exhibit  Association  in  the  Food  Products  Palace,  where  wine  punch  was 
served  to  over  10,000  people. 

At  4.30  o'clock  the  Eastern  delegates  assembled  in  the  service  room  of 
the  "Grape  Temple"  to  meet  Thomas  G.  Stallsniith,  Chief  of  Agriculture, 
who  presented  a  commemorative  bronze  medal  to  the  American  Wine  Grow- 
ers' Association. 

On  Thursday  morning,  July  15th,  at  7:45  o'clock,  the  delegates  left  for 
Asti,  in  Sonoma  County.  En  route  they  stopped  at  Petaluma  and  inspected 
the  Lachman  &  Jacobi  plant,  enjoying  a  buffet  luncheon  on  the  lawn  in  the 
patio. 

When  the  delegates  reached  Asti,  they  were  first  shown  the  important 
features  of  the  Italian  Swiss  Colony  winery,  including  the  great  storage 
tank  with  a  capacity  of  500,000  gallons,  and  the  champagne  plant,  under  the 
management  of  Charles  Jadeau. 

Luncheon  was  served  under  the  great  vine  arbor  in  the  grounds  adjoin- 
ing Cav.  Andrea  Sbarboro's  Villa  Pompeii,  where  moving  pictures  were  taken 
of  the  assembled  delegates. 

The  trip  to  Asti  conceded  the  formal  entertainment  of  the  visitors, 
who  during  the  next  few  days  returned  to  their  homes  in  the  East  and 
the  different  Viticultural  sections  of  California. 


MAY    271947 


JAN 


12Feb'55flP 


JAN  2  1 


UNW.  OF  CAUF..  B 


RK. 


LD  21- 


YC   I  181 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


